ABSTRACT
This study is a sociolinguistic investigation of Akụ dialect in Akụ community of Enugu State. Since language can be used to make or mar people, the attempt here is to examine the use of Akụ dialect by men and women ofAkụ community in referenceto one another. In doing so, three specific objectives were stated. They seek information on the form of expressions use by men and women to refer to one another, factors responsible for the use of such expressions by males and females in Akụ community and the effect of the use of such expressions on males and females in Akụ community. In this study, a sample survey design was used. A set of questionnaire and interview technique were employed to collect data. The data collected with the questionnaire was presented and analysed using tables. The interview served as complementary data in the discussion. In the analysis of the data, age, sex and occupation were the demographic variables analysed with frequencies and percentages. Also, the items raised in the study to answer the three research questions were analysed with frequencies and percentages. The findings of the study showed that, there are oppressive and conflict generating words, phrases, statements and proverbs used by men and women to address one another. The factors responsible for the choice of the use of such expressions in Akụ community are: culture, fear for gender equality, fear for male dominance, fear for women dominance, waywardness of men and women, exercise of political power and exercise of academic achievement. The effects of the use of such expressions on males and females in Akụ community are: divorce, domestic violence, poor child upbringing, fight, interfamily and inter village clashes, hatred, mistrust, murder for vengeance, delay and denial of marriage, prostitution, etc
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Page
............................................................................................................................
i
Declaration..........................................................................................................................
ii
Certification
.........................................................................................................................
iii
Dedication
............................................................................................................................
iv
Acknowledgements
...............................................................................................................
v
Table of Contents
............................................................................................................... vi – viii
Appendices ……………………………………………………………………………… ix
List of Tables……………………………………………………………………………. x
Abstract
................................................................................................................................
xii
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
to the Study .........................................................................................
1 - 3
1.2 The
Historical Origin of Akụ Community
........................................................ 3 - 5
1.3 The
Akụ Dialect, Culture , Tradition and
Map......................................................... 5 - 8
1.4 Statement
of the Research Problem
......................................................................... 9
1.5 Research
Questions
..................................................................................................
9-10
1.6 Aim
and Objectives of the Study
.............................................................................
10
1.7 Significance
of the Study……………………………………………………………10
1.8 Justification
for the Study
........................................................................................
11
1.9 Scope
and Delimitation of the Study .......................................................................
12
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1 Preamble
...............................................................
13
2.2 Sociolinguistics
........................................................................................................
13 - 14
2.3 Language
and Society
..............................................................................................
14 - 16
2.4 The
Importance of Language in the Society
..............................................................17 - 18
2.5 Men
and Women‟s Speech
......................................................................................
18 - 21
2.6 Sociolinguistic
Factors
.............................................................................................
21
2.7 Gender/Sexism
as a Determining Factor
.................................................................. 22-25
2.8 Culture
as a Determining Factor
..............................................................................
26 - 29
2.9 The
Patriarchy
..........................................................................................................
29 - 31
2.10 Religion
as a Determining Factor
............................................................................ 31
- 33
2.11 Theoretical
Framework
..........................................................................................
33 - 35
2.12 The
Cultural Dominance and Culture/Difference Theory
....................................... 35 - 37
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Preamble.................................................................................
38
3.2 The
Research Design
...............................................................................................
38 - 39
3.3 The
Target Population
.............................................................................................
39
3.4 Sample
and Sampling Procedure
.............................................................................
39 - 40
3.5 Research
Instrument
.................................................................................................
40 - 41
3.6 The
Questionnaire
....................................................................................................
41 - 42
3.7 The
Oral Interview
...................................................................................................
42 - 43
3.8 Pilot
Study
................................................................................................................
43
3.9 Validity
of Research Instruments
.............................................................................44
3.10 Administration
of Research Instrument/Data Collection
......................................... 44
3.11 Procedure
for Analysis
.............................................................................................
44 - 45
CHAPTER FOUR:
DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS 4.1 Preamble..............................................................................................................
46
4.2 The
Social Characteristics of Respondents
.............................................................. 46 - 48
4.3 Question
Related to the Topic of Study and Responses
.......................................... 48
4.3.1 The Following are Words,
Statements and Proverbs Used to Address the Men in
Akụ Community
..................................................................................................
48 - 50
4.3.2 The Following are Words,
Statements and Proverbs Used to Refer to Women in
Akụ Community
..................................................................................................
50 - 56
4.3.3 The Following are some of the
Words, Statements and Proverbs Used to Refer to Both
Men and Women in Akụ Community
............................................................. 56 - 62
4.4 The
Following Factors are Responsible for the Use of the Above Mentioned Expressions by People to Refer to One
Another in Akụ Community ...................... 62 - 66
4.5 The
Following are the Effects of the Use of the Above Mentioned Words, Phrases, Statements and
Proverbs on Men and Women in Akụ Community ........... 66 - 71
4.6 Summary
of Major
Findings ..................................................................................
72 - 74
4.7 Discussion
of
Findings..........................................................
74
4.7.1 The Words or Expressions Used
to Refer to the Men in Akụ Community ............. 75 - 78
4.7.2 The Word, Statements,
Proverbs Used in Referring to Women in Akụ Community 78 - 83
4.7.3 Words, Phrases and Statements
Used in Referring to Both Men and Women in Akụ
Community
.........................................................
83 - 85
4.8 The
Factors Responsible for their Choice of
Language ...........................................85 - 93
4.9 The
Effect of the Words, Phrases, Statements and Proverbs Used to Refer to Men and
Women in Akụ Community
...............................................................................
93 - 96
CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
5.1 Summary
..................................................................................................................
97 - 98
5.2 Conclusion
...............................................................................................................
98 - 99
5.3 Recommendations
……………...............................................................................99-100
5.4 Suggestions
for Further Research …………………………………………..……. 101
5.5 Contribution
to Knowledge ………………………………………………………. 101
References
................................................................................................................
102 - 107
APPENDICES
Appendix
1: Questionnaire
......................................................................................
108 - 111
Appendix
2: Interview Schedule
.............................................................................
112 - 113
Appendix
3: Interviewee Responses
....................................................................... 114 -
141
LIST OF TABLES
Table
1: Distribution of Respondents by Age
..................................................... 46
Table 2: Distribution of Respondents According to Sex
..................................... 47
Table 3: Distribution of Respondents According to
Occupation ........................... 47
Table
4: Oke ngta nwa onyonyo kpar – A dog
trained by woman: son of a bitch .. 48
Table 5: Echiche
Ndtiomu – Women‟s thinking/reasonable .................................. 49
Table
6: Mkpị
– He goat
.................................................
49
Table 7:
Owalị anuọzọ ne-egwuru ọnụ –
Aligator that cannot dig its own hole ....50
Table
8: Nwa onyonyo atụọhụ – A mere woman who should not talk when men are talking or a common woman who should not
bring herself out unless called or permitted
....................................................................................
50
Table
9: Omer
ke dimkpa – She acted like a real man
........................................... 51
Table
10: Ndtiomu bụ ukpo n‟ekpo obodo –
Women are destroyers of the community or women are detractors of the society
..................................................... 52
Table 11: Eweg nwa onyonyo
eme ntili ishi – Women are not reliable or women are unreliable
.................................
52
Table 12: Ndtiomu bụ ọbata osu – Women are trouble makers or home dividers
... 53
Table 13: Uka nwa onyonyo anọg,
okwu, ang adh nke obụ – There is peace or tranquillity where a woman is absent
............………...53
Table
14: Akwụnakwụna – Prostitute; Onye ukwu warr – Adulterous woman; Araka dti – Fantastic adulterer; Onye amịaa – Shameless and
uncontrollable adulterous woman;
and Onye nzoshue ụkwụ – Useless
adulterous woman 54
Table 15: Uchichi
agba eka, ọra ke‟ịkpọ and owe uchichi eme eshushue – Sexually Insatiable and dangerous fornicator
........................................................ 55
Table 16: Ebere boys –Free for the boys; and Ngta – bitch
................................... 55
Table 17: Nwa ndhdh agbụgba – A child born out of wedlock
.............................. 56
Table 18: Ngwere amag ahụhụ ulọ – Lizard does not share in the economic
and physical stress that are involved in
building a house, yet it lives in the house comfortably ...............................
56 Table
19: Onye kpee,nhu,uhere,and hurh nyịma shị meaning worthless fellow
or individual
............................................
57
Table
20: Onye nshị meanịng a murderer
............................................................... 58
Table 21: Adh mma ne igbugbu, adh mma ne ụtara meanịng good for nothing human being
............................................................................................
58 Table
22: Ọnọrh ọbia meanịng one who lives
on other people‟s benevolence .... 59
Table 23: Ndị eka nwe meanịng the out castes or
slave …….......................... 59
Table 24:Ejọ nwa or Ejọ mmadvụ meanịng evil child or evil human being
.............60
Table
25: Kpanthth,Mphrhwiwi, and Kpakpa
ahụriahụ meanịng a kleptomanịac.. 60
Table
26: Onye ejịghrị obu meanịng a
stubborn person ....................................... 61
Table 27: Ọdh kọdh kpọshị, ọdh kọdh gorh meanịng people of like minds or
birds of a feather
........................................
61
Table
28: Culture and Tradition
................................................................................
62
Table
29: Religion
...................................................................................................
63
Table
30: Fear of Gender Equality
.......................................................................... 63
Table
31: Fear of Male Domination
......................................................................... 64
Table
32: Fear of Female Domination
...................................................................... 64
Table
33: Waywardness of Men and Women
........................................................... 65
Table 34: The Exercise
of Economic and Political Power ....................................... 65
Table
35: Exercise of Academic Achievement
........................................................ 66
Table
36: It is Oppressive
.........................................................................................
66
Table
37: It Leads to Domestic Violence
................................................................. 67
Table 38:
It Leads to Divorce and Broken Home
..................................................... 67
Table
39: It Leads to Quarrel and Fight
.................................................................. 68
Table
40: It Brings About Hatred and Mistrust
.......................................................68
Table
41: It Leads to Poor Children Upbringing
.....................................................69
Table
42: It Leads to Prostitution
.............................................................................69
Table 43: It Leads to Inter-Village or Inter-Family
Clashes ....................................70
Table
44: Murder for Vengeance
.............................................................................70
Table 45:
It Can Cause Delay in Getting Married or Denial of Getting Married
.....71
Table
46: It Leads to Armed Robbery
......................................................................71
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the Study.
Language is the
fundamental tool of communication.
Language, according to Lahey (1978: 8), is a code whereby ideas,
information, objects, feelings, etc. in human society are represented through
conventional and arbitrary symbols for the purpose of communication either
orally or in written form. Language is
the expression of human communication through which knowledge, belief and
behaviour can be experienced, explained and shared. Cameron (1992) argues that language is the
medium through which we interpret our external world. This means that reality
is expressed through language. If reality is expressed through language, it
also follows that language plays an important role in creating our reality or
at least our sense of what reality is.
Language can create our world for us. It can manipulate our concepts of
self and identity. This is threatening
for men and women in general in Akụ community since language can be used to
make or mar people.
Akụ is a dialect among
over two hundred and fifty dialects in Igbo language and the primary language of
communication in Akụ community. In the
pre-colonial era, according to Ọchọ (1974), there was the modest use of the
dialect by men and women in addressing one another. This means that the use of
insulting and denigrating expressions were less among men and women. He stated that, there were clan or community
heads who served as agents of peace. They employed intelligent, strong proverbs
and aphoristic statements to convey their messages as well as to regulate the
assaultive use of language by men and women on each other. Idiomatic expressions and euphemisms were
mostly used when discussing unpleasant issues and situations he stressed.
Though, the community was controlled by men (patriarchy), language use was
regulated. The women from birth according toEjuona
Acada Front (2000) are taught to speak in a subservient way by their
parents. The acquisition of this special
style of speech was an excuse the men used to keep the women in a demeaning
position Lakoff (1975). The ancestral religion, with its tradition of the masquerade,
served as the watchdog of the society. The use of vulgar language capable of
raising nerves could attract a penalty. The use of indecent expressions by men
and women in referring to one another was minimal because it was a taboo
and that was why cases of divorce and
domestic violence were less Ọchọ,(1974).
The colonial period
introduced changes that permeated the dialect. The power of the clan heads and
traditional priests was weakened. The colonial army took control of everything.
There was a loss of the sacredness of the ancestral religion and its regulatory
power in the society-Manụ, (1982). The market economy that guaranteed
competition between the men and the women was introduced. Also, western
education that is normally distributed among sexes was introduced. Groups‟
teaching about equality of humans came up to influence the society. Men and
womenstarted clashing at different tents Lakoff, (1975). This development led
to the explosion of the use of expressions that describes the situation and was
veiled with many stereotypes, she asserted.
The
celebration of independence in 1960 came with its vices. The powers of elders
and clan heads were lost to rich merchants that cut across sex divide and
external influence of feminist group reduced the submissiveness of women to men
Manụ, (1982).
He further stated that complementary
relationship of husbands and wives preached by Christianity narrowed the
hierarchy between men and women. This resulted to incompatibility of men and
women, thus increasing the degree of clashes in the home as well as the
community as a whole. The cases of domestic violence and divorce took a
mathematical progression. With the nature of court settlement of crisis which
were not reconciliation centred, the crisis between men and women rather
increased Onyeọkụ et al (2013) argued.
In contemporary times,
many factors have fuelled the use of indiscriminate expressions by men and
women in Akụ community. The experience of the life style in foreign countries
has brought a transformation that is placing women at an equal level with men.
Therefore the tolerance in the use of indecent language to refer to oneanother
has dropped. Language that indicates disrespect of men and women against
oneanother seems to be on the increase today. There are expressions that create
class based on economic success. In the circle of men, the rich, no matter the
source of their wealth, are exalted with expression such as nnukwu mmọnwụ meaning big masquerade,ite-ego meaning pot of money etc. to
refer to them. This has created a fearful competition leading to a high
increase in crime such as drug trafficking, armed robbery, cultism,
prostitution and so on just to get out of a caste that is nurtured and
sustained by the forms of expressions used in Akụ community. It is this
progression of the use of insensitive expressions by men and women to refer to
one another in Akụ community from precolonial times to date that constitute the
background to this study.
1.2 The Historical Origin of
Akụ Community.
Akụ Diewa Mgboko
Odobo, according to Anị (2002) is one of the largest communities in Enugu
State. Akụ is situated in a valley of many hills; the Ase, Atụrụ, Ezugwu,
Egbugwu,OmAnị and Iyi-Afor hills. It is bounded on the North by Obimo in Nsụkka
Local Government Area; on the South by Affa in Udi Local Government Area; on
the East by Ikolo and Ohebe Dim in Igbo-Etiti Local Government Area and Akpugo
in Uzọ Ụwanị Local Government Area. Akụ community consists of three quarters,
six autonomous communities, thirteen villages and sixty-three hamlets.Many
authors in Akụ have written several materials on the origin of Akụ.Each writer
based his data collection and facts on oral tradition relying on the oral
traditional music of our forefathers. We
have different versions of the origin of Akụ but for the purpose of this study,
and for more clarity, the version by Ọchọ is adopted.
Ọchọ (1974: 2) states:
A man by name Ijaja while on a hunting trip
came to the present position of Akụ and was enchanted by the place Ijaja, then
went back home and brought his entire family to this present position of
Mgboko. One of his wives by name Odobo
gave birth to a male child called Mgboko.
To distinguish him from his other children, he was called Mgboko Odobo
as many polygamous families still do today. The first Akụ, had three sons:
Akaibute, Akaụtala and Ejuona.
In a clearly
reconciled analysis, the first son of Mgboko
is Akụ who had three sons:Akaibute,
Akaụtala and Ejuona (the three quarters in Akụ today). Akaibutewho
was named after his grandfather Mgboko had six sons which include: Useh,
Amaokwụ, Mgboko, Umu Ezike, Ohemje and Ofienyi.
Akaụtalais the second son of Akụ. He had four sons: Nụa, Obie,
Ugwunanị and Amogwu. These sons of Akaụtala became the fathers of the villages
that answer these names today. The last son is Ejuona who had three sons: Oshigo, Ọda and
Ugwu-Egede. These names now stand for villages in Akụ community. In totality,
there are thirteen villages in Akụ community. Some clans like Mgboko and Nụa
villages are very large, numbering between 8,000 and 10,000 peopleeachỌchọ,
(1974). The people have common culture
and common dialect. They understand their
affinity and therefore live in co-operative society.
1.3 The Akụ Dialect, Culture, Tradition and
Map
A dialect is a variety
of language characterised by a particular set of words, grammatical structures
and phonetic or phonological characteristics that are associated with a
particular geographical region, McGregor (2009). Akụ dialect is spoken by Akụ
people and it is a variety of Igbo language.Igbo language according to
Emenanjọ, (1978) in Mbaegbu, (2010) is one of three languages recognized in
Nigeria. The dialect is a mother tongue for about 221,274 people going by the
population census of 2006. It has some
vocabulary items, proverbs that are peculiar to Akụ people alone while some other lexical items are shared with
Igbo-Izugbe which is central Igbo.
Linguistic evidence
shows that Akụ dialect and the Igbo-Izugbe are closely related and it is
believed by linguists and researchers on Igbo language according toEze, Mbah
and Ezea (1991:1) that the people who speak this dialect and the
Igbo-Izugbe must have had a common
language in the past. This means that most linguistic items in the Akụ dialect
and that of the Igbo-Izugbe are mutually intelligible.
There is no doubt that
the knowledge and appreciation of the historical origin, culture and tradition
of a people provide the facts for socio-economic and political development of
that people. The culture of a society, according to Linton(1945: 203), as in
Mestherie, Swann, Deumert and Leap (2009:27), refers to “the way of life of its
members, the collection of ideas and habits which they learn, share and
transmit from generation to generation.”
Culture in this sense is a design for living which defines appropriate
or acceptable ways and form of behaviour within particular societies. Culture varies from society to society.
Akụ
community like any other community in Igbo land and beyond is rich in culture
and tradition. For instance, according
to the Ejuona Acada Front (2000: 81), the social system in Akụ community is
patriarchal. In which case, patrilineal system obtains in Akụ community. Thus
children in a marriage belong to the father‟s lineage not the mother‟s as in a
matrilineal system.
Another cultural
practice in Akụis the taking of title.
Some titles according to Ezikeanyi (1997), are meant for the men while
some are meant for the women. For
instance, the Ọzọ and Ogbuanyinya titles are meant for the men. The Ọzọ title represents authority, honesty
and wealth. Ọzọ titled men in Akụ are called Idi while their women counterparts
are called Lọlọanyị. Only the wives of Ọzọ titled men can perform
Lọlọanyịceremonies. The non-Ọzọ title holders in Akụ are called Oheke. Titles
like Lọlọanyị, Ogbun-Obodo, Oduaha, Ogbajiri, etc. are meant for the women. The
Odo masquerade is another cultural practicein Akụ community. Akụ people
according to Ezikeanyi (1982), see Odo as a link between the dead and the
living. He stated that mask is a representation of the spirit deity. The spirit
refers to the ancestors and the deity refers to the gods. Odo speaks a complex
language, heightened by high or deep guttural tones buttressing its anonymity.
The uninitiated males according to Manụ (1982), must be initiated into the
secrets of Odo to comprehend the complexity of Odo language. Manụ also says
that Interaction with Odo in mainly a male affair.
Religion was centred on
the existence of a supreme being „Chukwu Onye Okike‟ (god the creator). A
pantheon of other gods or deities said to be messengers or agents of the
Supreme God exist in Akụ community. They
are Ala (earth goddess), Igwe (Sky god), Anyanwụ (Sun god), Fijiọkụ (the god of
agriculture), Arịa Afịa (god of trade), Ojiyi deity, Ase deity, Chikeruegụrụ
deity, Ekumaha and Atụrụ deity. The Akụ people also vouch for their assertion
of or seek for their lost properties by these deities, Manụ (1982).
Some of these cultural
practices and traditions in the Akụ community have social implications on the
women in terms of linguistic expression. The women seem not to have complete
freedom of expression. This research therefore, is intended to unravel howthe
dialect is used by men and women of Akụ community in
interaction.
Map of Akụ
Village Group, 1974.
1.4 Statement of the Research
Problem.
Language expresses
one‟s intention. The theory behind attitude is language used. This means that
people react to what they hear and not to intentions. Akụ community is
experiencing many more vices today than before.The cases of domestic violence,
divorce and broken homes are on the increase,(Onyeọkụ et al 2013). Many marriages are surviving just for the
task of bringing up children together and for external show, while the couples
are dying in silence. Thereis also a high rate of inter-family conflict, armed
robbery, cultism etc. according to Amadị, (2000) and Ụzọchukwu (2013). There is
also the case of women not participating actively in politics etc.( Charton
1998).
Many factors could be
said to be responsible for these vices. But it seems that their persistence is
due to certain expressions used in Akụ community which nurture and sustain
them. In other words, the specific ways in which men refer to the women and how
women addressthe men are possible reasons why the above mentioned problems
persist. Thus, the concern of this study is to examine the expressions being
usedin the day to day communication among the people in Akụ community.
1.5 Research Questions.
In view of the
problems of the study, it is pertinent to ask questions with the hope that the
responses will offer possible solutions to the problems.
1. What forms of expressions do people use in referring to one
another in Akụ community?
2. What factors are responsible for the choice of such expressions
among men and women in Akụ community?
3. What are the effects of such expressions on male and female
members of Akụ community?
1.6 Aim and Objectives of the
Study.
The
main aim of the research is to study the sociolinguistic use of Akụ dialect in
Akụ community. In its objective, the research hopes:
1. to identify the forms of expressions used by men and women, in
referring to one another in Akụ community;
2. to analyse the factors responsible for the use of such
expressions by men and women in Akụ community and
3. to find out the effects of the use of such expressions on male
and female members ofAkụ community.
1.7
Significance of the Study.
Language, according to
the philosophy expressed in the myths and religions of many people, is the
source of human life and power (Fromkin and Rodman 2003). This is because
language is a medium through which the culture and the very nature of a society
can be understood. This study is set to examine the forms of expressions used
by men and women in Akụ community in addressing one another and the effects of
it on them. In view of this, it is believed that the government, writers,
researchers and scholars of sociolinguistics will find this study useful. The
study hopes to serve as a reference material that will aid in proffering a
solution to problem that arises due to the use of language.
1.8
Justification of the study.
This study is to show how Akụ dialect is used
in Akụ community. It is believed that the findings from this research will make
men and women in Akụ community realize the forms of expressions they use in
addressing one another and their effects on them since language can be used to
make or mar people. This study will also benefit the community in the
resolution of conflicts in broken homes and marriages.
This study will hopefully be of great
importance to the educational system in the curriculum development in terms of
character formation since one of the objectives of education is the formation
of individuals towards healthy attitudes. Therefore, it is hoped that this
study brings the spirit of respect, equality and human rights of all genders to
the readers. Recommendations from this study will guide the people of Akụ
community in terms of language used in referring to one another.
This study is justified because it will help
the government in terms of taking decision on the use of language. As far as
the use of language is concerned, this study will inform the concerned
governments to establish firm laws against hateful speech and punish those who
use hate speech to refer to one another. Since the government is in charge of
securing lives, and knowing that the use of language leads to different degrees
of social vices in the society such as armed robbery, kidnapping, committing murder
for vengeance, prostitution, etc. this study will go a long way in remedying
these problems.
1.9
Scope and Delimitation of the Study.
The Akụ community in Enugu State of Nigeria is
the scope and delimitation of the study.Akụ is located in the present
Igbo–Etiti Local Government Area of Enugu State. Akụ community, according to Ọchọ (1974: 1) is
located between latitude 6o 40C
North and longitude 7o23C
East. It is about ten kilometres to
Nsụkka Division Headquarters and 20.6 kilometres to Enugu, the Headquarters of
Eastern Provinces. The research is a sociolinguistic attempt to study Akụ
dialect in Akụ community.
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