This study identifies and assesses the linguistic
differences that contribute to gender language variations in news reportage. It
examines ninety six (96) news reports (48 Males, 48 Females) from the three
selected television stations of BBC, NTA and Channels TV. All the reports were
recorded between March, 2015 and January, 2016. Content analysis was used in
examining the linguistic gender differences in the Themes and Rhemes of the
reporters and in the type of stories they reported. A survey in the form of personal
interview was also conducted to find out the implications of the variations on
the target audience. Using Halliday (2004) textual analysis of themes and
Rhemes as a model, the study reveals that male and female reporters adopt
distinct mode of Themes and Rhemes in passing across their reports. The male
reporters predominantly employ active voices which are realized through
unmarked topical themes. The female reporters prefer passive voices thus, use
marked themes which were given additional force by their fronting. In addition,
the mapping of the thematic system on the informational system of the reporters
helps to project their viewpoints and attitudes towards events in the reports.
Furthermore, analysis of news reportages reveals that female reporters are more
likely to present reports on human interest and health related stories, home,
education, world affairs, and to some extent politics and conflicts. The males
it is assumed, present reports on conflicts, world affairs, politics and sports
that is considered intense dynamic and active reports. These findings support
researches such as Boyle and Macleod (2012) and Wen McCarthy and Strain (2013)
but challenge some of their positions with regard to the topic selections and
beats covered by the female reporters. According to them the female reporters
do not cover conflict topics like War, Politics and International Affairs.
However, the result of this study establishes the fact that female reporters
cover International Affairs, Politics and to some extent Conflicts. The study
reveals that 58% of the respondents prefer female reports. Some of the reasons
given by this cadre to justify their choices include ‗simplicity‘, ‗more
detailed‘, ‗more comprehensive,‘ etc. while 42% of the interviewee prefer male reports
on the bases of ‗specificity‘, ‗forcefulness‘, ‗less time consuming‘,
‗technicality‘ and ‗persuasiveness‘. Results suggest that the current news
reportage largely conforms to an established gender divide that, the language
use amongst males and females can actually be distinguished in terms of
vocabulary, expressions and subject matter even in the field of the media
(television).
TITLE PAGE ........................................................................................................................
i
DECLARATION...................................................................................... ii
DEDICATION........................................................................................ iii
CERTIFICATION................................................................................... iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...................................................................... v
ABSTRACT........................................................................................... vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS...................................................................... viii
CHAPTER ONE....................................................................................... 1
INTRODUCTION.................................................................................... 1
1.0 Background to the Study.................................................................... 1
1.0.1. One way
Communication............................................................. 7
1.0.2 The Selected
Television Stations................................................... 9
1.1 Statement of the Research Problem................................................... 11
1.2 Research Questions.......................................................................... 12
1.3 Aim and Objectives of the Study....................................................... 13
1.4 Significance of the Study.................................................................. 13
1.5 Scope of the Study........................................................................... 14
CHAPTER TWO.................................................................................... 16
REVIEW OF RELATED
LITERATURE.............................................. 16
2.0 Preamble......................................................................................... 16
2.1 Linguistic Competence and Communicative Competence................... 16
2.2 Variation in Language Use............................................................... 20
2.3 Style and Stylistics........................................................................... 22
2.3.1 Style/Stylistics (Traditional Approach)........................................... 22
2.3.2 Subjectivity in Traditional Approach to Style.................................. 25
2.3.3 Linguistic Approach to Stylistics.................................................... 25
2.4 Schools
of Stylistics............................................................................ 31
2.4.1 Sociolinguistic Stylistics................................................................ 31
2.4.2 Feminist Stylistics......................................................................... 31
2.4.3 Functional Stylistics...................................................................... 32
2.4.5 Structural Stylistics........................................................................ 33
2.4.6 Pragmatic Stylistics....................................................................... 34
2.4.7 Pedagogical Stylistics.................................................................... 36
2.5 Language
and Gender......................................................................... 38
2.5.1 Studies on Language and Gender.................................................... 38
2.5.2 Speech Practices Associated with Gender....................................... 43
2.6 Theory of Ideology............................................................................... 60
2.7 Communication and Gender Issues........................................................ 62
2.8 What is News and why Study News Media?........................................... 65
2.9 A Beat as a Concept............................................................................. 66
2.10 The Media Language.......................................................................... 67
2.10.1 The Audience for
Media Language............................................ 71
2.10.2 Audience Design...................................................................... 76
2.10.3 Accommodation
Theory............................................................ 77
2.11 Gendered Differences in News Reportage............................................ 78
2.12 Theoretical
Orientation..................................................................... 79
2. 12.1 Textual
Functions.................................................................... 81
2.12.2 Theme and Rheme.................................................................... 82
2.12.3 Ideational (Topical Theme)...................................................... 84
2.12.4 Marked and
Unmarked Topical Theme...................................... 84
2.12.5 The Rheme............................................................................... 84
CHAPTER THREE................................................................................ 86
METHODOLOGY................................................................................. 86
3.0 Preamble........................................................................................... 86
3.1 Selecting a Sample............................................................................. 86
3.2 Sources of Data
Collection (The Speakers/Reporters)........................... 87
3.2.1 List of Reporters......................................................................... 88
3.3 Data Descriptions.............................................................................. 88
3.4 Methods of Data Collection.............................................................. 89
3.4.1 Beats of the
Reports.................................................................... 90
3.5 Analytical Procedure.......................................................................... 90
CHAPTER FOUR................................................................................... 93
PRESENTATION OF
DATA AND ANALYSIS.................................. 93
4.0 Preamble........................................................................................... 93
4.1 The News Reports............................................................................. 93
4.2 Data Analysis.................................................................................... 94
4.2.1 Halliday‘s Model
of Theme and Rheme...................................... 94
4.2.2 Analysis of the
Thematic and Rhematic elements of the Dyad across the same topic..................................................................................... 95
4.2.3 Discussions: Theme
Selections of the Dyad.............................. 100
4.2.4 Frequency ratio of
the Theme selection...................................... 101
4 .2.5 DOMINANT THEMES........................................................... 102
4.3 The Processes of
Thematization and Passivization............................. 103
4.4 The Relationship
between Language and Ideology............................. 105
4.5 The Rheme Analysis........................................................................ 107
4.6 Lexical Features and
Meaning Relations of the Dyad‘s Reports.......... 108
4 .6.1 Synonyms............................................................................... 109
4.6.2 Nominalization....................................................................... 110
4.6.3 Euphemism.............................................................................. 111
4.6.4 Relexicalization...................................................................... 112
4. 6.5 Over Lexicalization................................................................ 112
4.6.6 Collocations............................................................................ 113
4.6.7 Misconceptions and Wrong Choices of Words.......................... 113
4.6.8 Stylistic
Variations of the Reporters Terminator Moves............... 115
4.7 Analysis of Topics
and Subject Matters Covered by Male Reporters (Group II.............................................................................................. 117
Reports)................................................................................................ 117
4 .8 Content Analysis of
Beats and Subject Matters Covered by Female Reporters (Group II Reports)............................................................... 118
4.9 Implications of the
Variations on the Target Audience........................ 121
4. 9.1 Diagrammatic
representation of the evaluation of female and male reports.............................................................................................. 124
4.10 Discussion of
Findings................................................................... 124
CHAPTER FIVE.................................................................................. 128
SUMMARY,
CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH......................................................................................... 128
5.1 Preamble......................................................................................... 128
5.2 Summary of the Study...................................................................... 128
5. 3 Conclusion..................................................................................... 129
5.4 Suggestion for Further
Studies.......................................................... 132
REFERENCES..................................................................................... 133
WEBLIOGRAPHY.............................................................................. 142
APPENDIX I:
REPORTS TRANSCRIPTION: GROUP ONE........... 143
APPENDIX 2: MALE
REPORTS TRANSCRIPTIONS GROUP 11. 146
APPENDIX 3:
FEMALE REPORTS TRANSCRIPTIONS GROUP 11.......................................................................................................... 146
In recent decades and in the
contemporary globalizing world, the mass media has gained more power and women
have gradually become more visible in the sphere of journalism. The growth in
female contribution to the television reportage has been observed and many
researchers argue that there is an increase in the influence of women in news
reportage (Cann 2001, Mack 2003, Desmond 2009). However, a systemic approach to
identifying and qualifying this contribution is yet to be proposed which is
part of what this research seeks to address. Specifically, the study aims to
identify differences in lexical choice and topic selection that are
attributable to the speakers‘ gender in news reportage. Through the findings,
the study hopes to offer some insights as regards how the choice of language
features might affect the veracity and persuasiveness of news reportage.
Ultimately, the goal of news reportage is to convey information and ideas and
for the audience to have a better understanding of political and societal
issues. In order to more successfully achieve that goal, it is necessary that news writers and reporters understand the
effect that gender may have on the way that news is both conveyed and
interpreted. It is on the basis of these observations that the researcher
considers it worthy to carry out this study on gender variations in the
language of television news reportage from the Linguistic Stylistic perspective.
Language is
all about experience, (a loaded weapon as Bolinger claims) it is all about
communication and linguistics is the scientific study of language, which by
implication is the study of our experiences and communications. Linguistics is
sometimes defined as ―a language talking about language‖. It has developed from
a discipline with narrowly defined formal concerns to a more comprehensive
discipline in which the role of language in relation to the conceptualization
and communication of meaning has been fruitfully investigated.
Linguistics is
a field that examines all aspects of human language through formal, scientific
and variable measures. It draws from various disciplines for an understanding
of different aspects of language in its various forms. From Human Psychology,
it gains an understanding of the mental processes involved in the use of
language; how language is stored, perceived and processed in the brain. From
Anthropology and Sociology, it gains an understanding of human‘s behaviour in their
use of language in various contexts, (YulIfode, 2012). Hence, Linguistics has
many branches which include Sociolinguistics, Pragmatics, Neurolinguistics,
Anthropological Linguistics, and Stylistics (which is the focal point of this
study). These branches study language with respect to the consequences of the
interaction of human language with other disciplines. For example, Linguistic
Stylistics which is the focus of this study is the linguistic study of the
language of literature or text. In Stylistics one studies and analyses the
language patterns and structure of a particular genre and in the context of
this study, the genre to be examined comprises spoken texts of television.
We can therefore, posit that Stylistics
builds on linguistics and in return it challenges our linguistic frameworks,
reveals their deficiencies and urges us to refine them. Sometimes Stylistics
also assesses the aesthetic features of speakers‘ use of language and helps
speakers or analysts to categorise or systemize them. This research hopes to
assess the linguistic Stylistic variations found in the speeches of male and
female reporters in British Broadcasting Corporation, Channels TV, and Nigerian
Television Authority and attempt to analyse and systemize these variations.
Stylistics is the scientific study of style and style is certainly a familiar
word, but interestingly because of its multiplicity of definitions, the concept
has been used to mean different things to different scholars, as such different
definitions have been given to the term ―Style‖. For the purposes of this
study, it becomes expedient to consider the various definitions of Stylistics
that scholars have given. The term style first referred in English to a writing
implement, then to ways of using it, and to ways of doing virtually
anything.
Ordinarily, the word ‗style‘ is used to
refer to the manner of doing things; speaking, writing, dressing, walking,
eating, plaiting etc. Crystal and Davy (1969: 9-10) enunciate four definitions
of style as follows:
i.
Style as the language habit
of a person.
ii.
Style referring to some or
all the language habits shared by a group of people at one time over a period
of time.
iii.
Effectiveness of mode of
expression. iv. Style as tantamount to
literary language.
The former presupposition in
linguistic/literary circles is that, the study of style is a viable technique
of the study of literary texts. However, in the age of positivism, that is, the
theory that holds that knowledge can be acquired through direct observation and
experimentation, the study assumes the posture of a scientific discipline in
sign. This approach is called linguistic Stylistics, a bridge-science bordering
on linguistic variation informed by certain linguistic factors, (Kwanya 1997)
When limited to
literary language, Stylistics is then literary. When, however, texts for
analysis are drawn from other linguistic variables, Stylistics is linguistics.
Stylistic variation, especially in broadcast speech, is one of the main factors
of quantitative linguistic research because in broadcast speech the Stylistic
aspect is relevant to many levels of analysis; for example, setting, topic and
language choices.
Another important foundation for
quantitative as well as qualitative linguistic research is language variation
and change. In other words, an important foundation for quantitative and
qualitative linguistic research is the notion that language is inherently
variable and changeable. Variation within a linguistic system or a speech
community can be stable or it can be an indication of change in progress.
Weinreich et al (1968:188) state that ―not all variability and heterogeneity in
language structure involves change; but all change involves variability and
heterogeneity‖. Farmers and Harnish (2002:259) also posit that:
No human language is fixed,
uniform or unvarying, all languages show internal variation. Actual usage
varies from group to group and speaker to speaker in terms of the pronunciation
of language, the choice of words and meaning of those words, even the use of
syntactic constructions.
Here variation is taken to mean any
phenomenon involving more than one type of realization for a linguistic form.
Variation can be found at intra-speaker level, within the speech of a single
individual and at inter- speaker level between individuals. The former is
related to factors in the linguistic context or in the speech situation while
the latter typically correlates with social categories such as age, gender,
class, etc. This study focuses on the social categories of gender at the
inter-speaker level between individuals in the television reportage outfit and
provides evidence that linguistic gender variation/variability is patterned and
progresses in an orderly manner. The primary data for this study were obtained
from the mass media through the social variable television
(The Mass Media Television). The phrase
―mass media‖ or simply ―media‖ is commonly used to refer to the media industry
in general (Maletzke, 1984). The term mass medium as such actually denotes a
technological apparatus that is of fundamental importance within the Mass
Communication process.
A medium thus,
is a technological transmitter of information within Mass Communication. This
transmitter is constructed in such a way that it allows the mass distribution
of produced media contents. Hence, we speak of a ―mass medium‖. In other words,
mass denotes the accessibility of the medium, for example, television for a
large number of people. Mass Media comprises print, electronic and social
networks but among the traditional mass media press, radio and television, it
is the television that is the youngest mass medium for obvious reasons of
required technology (Burns 1998, Franke, 2011). As its technological processes
involve the transportation of audio- visual information encoded in the
television signal, its development is based on technological advances. This
allows the (successful) transmission and mass distribution not simply of the
printed words as in the case of the press or acoustic signal alone as in the
case of radio but of both the audio and visual signals. It also allows the
transmission from a (technical) sender to a (technical) receiver to be able to
decode both types of signal simultaneously.
A mass medium thus is an intermediate
transmitter of information that reaches the members of audience simultaneously.
Mass Communication therefore, is ―message communicated through a mass medium to
a large number of people‖ (Okunna 1999). It is the use of mass media that
differentiates Mass Communication from other types of communication like
interpersonal and group communication. The mass media are powerful tools for
opinion moulding, agenda setting, public debate, integration, entertainment,
education, motivation and mobilization. They wield a lot of power. Talking
about this power, Brain Wenham (a former BBC director of programmes) says:
Television is credited… with almost superhuman powers. It
can they say start wars, and it can sap the will to continue those wars. It can
prevent the society talking sensibly to itself. It can cause trouble to the
streets. (Boyd 1997:167).
If the mass media have such tremendous
power, it behoves any person who reports for them to appropriate such powers.
To hold such powers however, the reporters have to speak well and choose words
that are linguistically and contextually appropriate.
Television and
the television news have been the objects of an intense ongoing debate aimed at
investigating the social influence and the scope of their impact on politics,
the representation of current affairs and the shaping of public opinion and
culture today. We cannot provide an accurate objective description of social
reality gender but we can attempt to produce a complete description of the
presence of men and women and their linguistic variations in the ―main window
of the world‖, the television news reporting (Rodgers and Thornson, 2003).
Another social variable that
influences the use of language and also constitutes the focus of this study is
gender. As a social variable, gender is based on the biological sex of the
speakers. As such, gender is a relatively straightforward category in the sense
that it is unproblematic to define, readily observable, and there is no doubt
as to how the speakers should be categorized (in contrast to for example social
class, which is notoriously difficult to define). There are only two gender
categories: male and female. As a factor in sociolinguistic analysis however,
gender is conceived as a social construction of sex (Eckert 1997, Cheshire
2002). Biological sex is the underlying basis for the differentiation of roles,
norms and expectations that apply to men and women and it is these social and
cultural factors that constitute gender. The differences in patterns of
linguistic variation between men and women are then a function of gender and
only indirectly a function of sex: speakers are typically classified in terms
of their biological sex, but the findings are interpreted in terms of the
social roles and self image of men and women.
Gender is understood to be a social
concept through which society defines masculinity or feminity, a series of
characteristics and behaviour through which its members are socialized from infancy; thus, the values associated
with feminity do not correspond to any (anatomical or hormonal) essence. They are constitutions with cultural
and social basis which change overtime and are concerned in a variety of ways
outside the western views of the cosmos. The literature in both scholarly and
lay circles is replete with evidence that gender study is rife. Examples of
researches in this area include: Adejoke
(2010), Woofit (2005), Lakoff (2004) Eckert and
McConnell-Ginet (2003) Wodak (1993),
Tannen (1990; ed. 1993), Holmes
(1992) Maltz and Borker (1982), Spender (1980) Kramer( 1974), etc. These are
some of the gender- based researches in the field of language and linguistics.
The major and common finding of
these researches is that men and women behave differently when they communicate
(many texts provide detailed list of such differences). For example, Eckert and
McConnel Ginet ( 2003), Lakoff (2004) Tannen (1990) posit that comparing men
and women, there are differences in phonology, grammar and vocabulary and in
the body stances and movements that accompany speech. The question here is how
do these differences affect the world of the media, especially the television
reportage outfit of these reporters? The current study is also an
interdisciplinary one, because it focuses on the inter-play of language and
mass media (media linguistics). But it should be noted that the primary
orientation is that of language used within the electronic media, specifically,
television.
1.0.2 The Selected Television
Stations
The data for the present study were
drawn from recordings of reporters from three Television stations, BBC World,
NTA and Channels Television. These stations were chosen because they were all
available via satellite and therefore, easily accessible. They were also chosen
because they are exemplary and associated with the high standard of the English language they use.
BBC world news is the British Broadcasting Corporation‘s 24
– hour‘s international current affairs TV Channel and was launched in January
1995. It was formally known as BBC World Service Television.BBC world news
claim to have over one hundred and sixty journalists from the continents
covering stories of the continents.
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_World_News)
The Nigerian Television Authority
also known as NTA was inaugurated in 1977 and it is the government –owned body
in charge of Television broadcasting in the country. The
NTA claims to run the biggest
television in Africa with stations in several parts of Nigeria. Formally known
as Nigerian Television (NTV), the network began with a takeover of regional
television stations in 1976 by the then Nigerian military authorities,
and
is widely
viewed as the authentic voice
of Nigerian
government.
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigerian_Television_Authority)
Channels Television is one of the
Thirteen Independent and non-governmental Television stations currently broadcasting
in Nigeria. Channels TV is a 24-hours news channel broadcasting live from
Lagos, Nigeria West Africa. Channels TV has been broadcasting in Nigeria since
the Federal government deregulated the broadcasting media in 1992 and the
company was licensed in June 1993. Channels TV was allocated a frequency on UHF
(Channel 39). It began transmission two years later and now broadcasts to a
well discerning audience of over 20 million people. The station was independent
and associated with standard usage of language. (
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Channels_TV)
This study is motivated on the
assumption that variety and variability are inevitable features of language
use. Among the speakers of any language
there are variations in the way they use language. There are also differences
between the speeches of men and women. These variations are demonstrated by
linguistic differences in terms of sounds (phonetics) and structures (grammar).
However, these might be only slight variations between forms of a language,
such as minor pronunciation of words or slight changes of grammatical structure
that inhibit intergroup communication. Sometimes there are differences between
the speeches of different social classes and differences between age
groups. People will identify some of
those features as making the ‗best‘ or most ‗beautiful‘ form of the language
and other features will be considered nonstandard or undesirable. Some of these
differences may impede intelligibility and inter group communication. The study
also takes as its starting point the assumption that, different choices of
Themes/Rhemes and their organization can elucidate ideological factors that
underlie news reportage of the correspondents. Although many studies have been
conducted in the fields of gender and news reportage, very few have attempted
to investigate the roles of Themes and Rhemes in marked and unmarked thematic
structure of the male and female correspondents. This is the premise upon which this research
was conducted.
On the subject of linguistic
gender communication, especially in the case of news reportage, one question
continues to excite popular passion and command scholarly discussion; Are there
meaningful gender differences in the language behaviour of the news reporters?
There is no doubt that men and women speak the same language but their
articulation often times differ. To this end, the Stylistic gender variations
in the speech of reporters may impact on the interest of the viewers/hearers
thereby, enhancing or deterring them to get maximum satisfaction in programs or
news report. This study therefore, is concerned with interrogating the extent
to which variations in television news reportage contribute to the efficiency
of news reports or enhances it. To this end, attempt will be made through a
linguistic Stylistic study to demystify this discourse. Also, the quantitative
analytical approach is adopted to gauge the impact of the variations on the
viewers/listeners. The present study which is both qualitative and quantitative
is then an attempt to fill some of the empirical gaps by supplying both
qualitative and quantitative corpus-based data on the current linguistic gender
variations in the speeches of the television correspondents.
Furthermore, news reportage is
intended to serve the public in terms of nurturing a better understanding of
both political and societal concern of a society. Such a goal may be stymied if
reporters lack sufficient understanding of the effect gendered language may
have on the conveyance and interpretation of news. The goal of this research is
not just to assess the linguistic variations of the news reporters but also to
offer some insights as to how these gender variations in the language of the
reporters might affect the efficiency of the news reporters or enhance their
professionalism.
The present study is concerned with answering the
following questions:
1. What are the thematic and rhematic patterns of the male and
female reporters of BBC, NTA and Channels Television?
2. To what extent does gender variation affect the choice of
sentence patterns and lexical items of the male and female reporters of BBC,
Channels TV and N.T.A?
3. To what extent does gender determine the choice of subject
matters covered in the television news reportage?
4. And what are the implications of the linguistic gender
differences of the television reportage outfits on the target audience?
The aim of this study is to identify
and assess the linguistic differences that contribute to gender language
variations in news reportage. Specifically, the study hopes to achieve the
following objectives:
i. to analyse the selection of the Themes and
Rhemes in the clauses used by the male and female reporters of BBC, Channels TV
and NTA (on the same beat reports) ii. to identify the gender variations in the choice of sentence patterns
and lexical items of the male and female in television news reportage on BBC,
Channels TV and NTA iii. to
identify the differences in the subject matters (beats) covered by men and
women in news reportage; and iv. to examine the effect of the gender
variations on the target audience.
The yardstick by which successful
communication is measured is the ability of the participant communicator to
speak clearly so that the recipient will not find it difficult to understand
the message. Understanding therefore, the social dynamics of gendered language
in the speech of television reporters enhances the issue of professionalism and
the way people construe and understand the news; hence the need for the
study.
The overall intention of this study is to give
insight on the effect of gender variations in the nature of television news
reporting as a medium and an institution. This study is basically
inter-disciplinary in character covering both linguistic and media studies and
in so doing it constitutes a current contribution to contemporary media
linguistics. It is hoped that the study will be of particular interest to
journalists, editors and current affairs communicators because it highlights
how gendered linguistics and topical differences (unconsciously) permeate
reportage.
The study hopes to serve as a
contribution to the efficiency of the reporters as well as the listeners in the
interpretation of the news. This study will hopefully be of interest to anyone
(especially reporters) whose task it is to effectively communicate
information.
The study is also of importance to
linguists and cognitive psychologists because it stands to better identify
textual features of gendered language. Such insights may facilitate more
reliable predictions regarding male and female communication, understanding and
perception
The current emphasis on Linguistic
Stylistic approach to language use in news reporting brought the television
media to the centre stage of discourse in communication (Media Linguistics).
This research was limited to a specific number of television media outfits. So
the linguistic data were collected from the three television channels; one public
channel,
Nigerian Television Authority
(NTA), one private channel, Channels Television and one international channel,
British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) news television. These channels are also
exemplary and associated with the high standard of the English language they
use.
The thrust of the discussion being
oral (speech), in the sense that the television media are associated with the
oral use of language, compelled the researcher to explore some of the
linguistic features of the news reports including the syntactic and the lexical
features. The study adopted the concepts of Halliday‘s (2004) textual themes
and rhemes analysis as both its theoretical and analytical framework. Also a
survey in the form of personal and structured interviews was conducted to
establish the impacts of the linguistic gender variations on the audience.
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