ABSTRACT
Five experiments were conducted to determine the chemical and nutritional evaluation of Anthonotha macrophylla seed meal as an alternative protein source for broiler chickens. Experiment 1 investigated the proximate, gross energy, anti-nutritional factors, minerals and amino acid compositions of the raw, boiled, blanched and toasted Anthonotha macrophylla seeds meal. In experiment 2, the metabolizable energy of raw and variously processed Anthonotha macrophylla seeds meal were determined using 15 matured broiler chickens by force-feeding method. In experiment 3, the level of inclusion of raw Anthonotha macrophylla seeds meal in broiler chickens’ ration was determined. Experiment 4 evaluated the performance of broiler chickens fed boiled, blanched and toasted Anthonotha macrophylla seeds meal at 2.5% raw inclusion level. Experiment 5 determined the dietary inclusion level of blanched Anthonotha macrophylla seeds meal in broiler chickens’ diet. The experiments were carried out in a completely randomized design consisting of three replicates with 10 birds per replicate. In experiment 1, the crude protein content of toasted Anthonotha macrophylla seeds meal was higher (p<0.05) than others. Toasting resulted in the highest percentage reduction of anti-nutritional factors. Seeds toasted had the highest value for minerals (p<0.05). Blanched seeds meal gave the highest value (p<0.05) for most of the amino acids. In experiments 2, boiled seeds meal had the highest (p<0.05) true metabolizeable energy (2.60kcal/g) and true metabolizable energy corrected for nitrogen (1.64kcal/g). In experiment 3, the raw Anthonotha macrophylla seeds meal significantly (p<0.05) depressed growth as the levels of inclusion increased from 0 to 7.5%. Diet 2(2.5%) showed significantly (p<0.05) higher values for carcass yield and similar (P>0.05) economics of diet with control diet. The blood constituents analyzed revealed normal range values except for MCV and MCH for all the diets and eosinophil’s for diet 4 (7.5%) only. In experiment 4, body weights showed no significant (p>0.05) difference. Diet containing blanched Anthonotha macrophylla seeds meal (diet 3) performed better for carcass yield, FCR, had least cost/kg weight gain and highest gross margin. The blood constituents analyzed revealed normal range values except for neutrophils for all the diets, lymphophils of diet 3 and MCV for diet 1, 3 and 4 only. In experiment 5, birds fed 7.5% blanched Anthonotha macrophylla seeds meal (diet 3) performed better for body weight gains, cut-parts, FCR and economics of diets among others. Organ weights showed no significant differences (p>0.05).The blood constituents analyzed revealed normal range values except for neutrophils, lymphophils, MCV, MCH for all the diets and eosinophil’s for diets 4 only. It is therefore concluded that blanching emerged as the best processing technique among others. Quantitative replacement of soya bean meal with raw Anthonotha macrophylla seeds meal at 2.5% dietary level of inclusion was not deleterious to broiler chickens. Broiler chickens fed blanched Anthonotha macrophylla seeds meal gave the best performance among the chickens fed differently processed seeds meal at 2.5% dietary level of inclusion. The dietary level of inclusion of quantitative replacement of the soya bean meal with the product of the best processing technique (blanched seeds meal) was 7.5%.
TABLE
OF CONTENTS
Title page i
Declaration ii
Certification iii
Dedication iv
Acknowledgment v
Table of Contents vi
List of Tables xi
List of Plates xiv
Abstract xv
CHAPTER 1
1.0 Introduction 1
1.1 Background
of the Study 1
1.2 Objective
of the Problem 2
1.3 Statement
of the Problem 3
1.4 Justification 3
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Origin/Distribution 5
2.2 Common Names 5
2.3 Synonym 5
2.4 Taxonomy 5
2.5 Botany 7
2.6 Ecology 9
2.7 Management 9
2.8 The
Fallow System 9
2.8.1 Natural fallow 10
2.8.2 The planted fallow 12
2.9 Chemical
Compositions 12
2.10 Mineral
Composition of Anthonotha macrophylla
Seeds 15
2.11
Amino Acid Composition of Anthonotha macrophylla Seeds. 18
2.12
Anti-Nutritional Factors 20
2.12.1
Tannins 22
2.12.2 Phytate 23
2.12.3
Nitrate 25
2.12.4
Hydrogen cyanide (HCN) 26
2.13 Effect
of Processing Methods on Anti-Nutritional Factors 27
2.13.1 Boiling 28
2.13.2 Toasting 29
2.13.3 Blanching 31
2.14
Metabolisable Energy of Anthonotha macrophylla Seeds. 34
2.15
Concept of Metabolizable Energy 36
2.16
Factors affecting the Metabolizable
Energy Values of Feeds 37
2.17
Criticisms of True Metabolization
Energy Procedures 38
2.18 Uses
of Anthonotha macrophylla 38
2.18.1 Cropping uses 38
2.18.2 Livestock uses 39
2.18.3 Medicinal uses 39
2.19 Blood 41
2.19.1
Blood chemistry 41
2.19.2
Haematological indices 45
2.19.2.1
Haemoglobin 45
2.19.2.2
Red blood cell 46
2.19.2.3
Packed cell volume 47
2.19.2.4
White blood cell 47
2.19.2.5
Mean corpuscular volume 51
2.19.2.6
Mean corpuscular haemoglobin 52
2.19.2.7
Mean corpuscular haemoglobin concentration 52
2.20 Importance
of Carcass Quality and Organ Evaluation 54
2.20.1 Carcass quality 54
2.20.2
Organ evaluation 54
2.21 Economy of Production 57
2.21.1 Cost/kg of feed 58
2.21.2 Cost of feed consumed 58
2.21.3
Cost/kg weight gain 59
2.21.4 Revenue 59
2.21.5 Gross margin 59
CHAPTER
3
MATERIALS AND
METHODS
3.1 Experimental Location 60
3.2 Feedstuff
and Processing of Anthonotha macrophylla
Seeds Meal 60
3.3
Experimental Birds and Their
Management 61
3.4
Experimental Diets 61
3.4.1 Raw Anthonotha macrophylla seeds meal 61
3.4.2
Processed Anthonotha macrophylla seed meal 63
3.4.3 Balanced Anthonotha
macrophylla seeds meal 65
3.5 Chemical
Analysis 67
3.6 Mineral
Determination 67
3.7 Determination
of Anti-Nutrient 67
3.8 Determination
of Amino Acid Profile 69
3.9 Determination
of Metabolizable Energy of Raw And
Processed
Anthonotha macrophylla seeds
meal 71
3.10 Growth
Performance 72
3.11 Haematological
and Blood Chemistry Analysis 73
3.12 Carcass
Evaluation 77
3.13 Economics
of the Experimental Diets 78
3.14 Experimental
Design and Data Collection 78
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS
AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Proximate
Composition of Anthonotha macrophylla
Seeds Meal 80
4.2 Anti-
Nutritional Factors of Raw and Variously Processed
Anthonotha macrophylla Seeds
Meal 86
4.3 Mineral
Composition (Macro) of Raw and Variously
Processed Anthonotha macrophylla Seeds Meal 89
4.4
Mineral Composition (Micro) of Raw
and Variously
Processed Anthonotha macrophylla Seeds
Meal. 92
4.5 Essential
Amino Acids (%) of Raw and Variously
Processed Anthonotha macrophylla Seeds Meal. 94
4.6
Non-Essential Amino Acids (%) of Raw
and
Processed Anthonotha macrophylla Seeds Meal. 97
4.7
True Metabolizable Energy
(TME) (Kcal/g) And
Metabolizable
Energy Corrected to Nitrogen
Equilibrium
(TMEn) (Kcal/g) Of Raw and Variously
Processed
Anthonotha macrophylla Seeds Meal. 99
4.8
Experiment Three (Raw) 101
4.8.1
Proximate and gross energy compositions 101
4.8.2
Anti nutritional factors 103
4.8.3
Growth performance 105
4.8.4
Cut- parts 108
4.8.5
Organ weights 110
4.8.6
Haematological indices 112
4.8.7
Blood chemistry indices 114
4.8.8
Economic analysis of feed 116
4.9
Experiment Four (Processing Methods) 118
4.9.1
Proximate and gross energy composition 118
4.9.2
Anti- nutritional factors 120
4.9.3
Growth performance 122
4.9.4
Cut- parts 124
4.9.5
Organ weights 126
4.9.6
Haematological indices 128
4.9.7
Blood chemistry indices 131
4.9.8
Economic analysis of feed 133
4.10
Experiment Five (Blanched Seeds) 135
4.10.1 Proximate
and gross energy composition 135
4.10.2 Anti-
nutritional factors 137
4.10.3 Growth
performance 139
4.10.4 Cut-
parts 142
4.10.5 Organ
weights 144
4.10.6
Haematological indices 146
4.10.7
Blood chemistry indices 149
4.10.8
Economic analysis of feed 151
Conclusion and recommendation 154
References 158
Appendix 176
LIST OF
TABLES
2.1 Vegetation density and botanical composition
of
three and seven-year-old bush fallows
in Eastern Nigeria. 11
2.2
The proximate composition (%) of
Anthonotha
macrophylla seeds meal. 13
2.3
Proximate composition and gross
energy of raw and variously
processed (boiled) Anthonotha
macrophylla seeds meal. 13
2.4
Proximate composition and gross
energy of
Anthonotha
macrophylla seeds meal. 13
2.5
Mineral compositions (macro) of raw
and
variously processed (boiled) Anthonotha macrophylla seeds meal. 16
2.6
Mineral compositions (micro) of raw
and
variously processed (boiled) Anthonotha macrophylla seeds meal. 16
2.7 Essential
amino acids (g/100%g) of raw and
variously
processed (boiled) Anthonotha macrophylla
seeds meal. 19
2.8 Non-essential
amino acids (g/100%g) of raw and
variously
processed (boiled) Anthonotha macrophylla
seeds meal. 19
2.9 Anti-nutritional
factor of raw and variously
processed
(Boiled) Anthonotha macrophylla seeds
meal. 21
2.10 True metabolisable energy (TME) and metabolizable
energy
corrected to nitrogen equilibrium (TMEn) of raw and
variously
processed (boiled) Anthonotha macrophylla
seeds meal. 35
2.11
Physical constants of Anthonotha macrophylla seeds meal. 40
2.12
Normal range of blood chemistry
indices of
broiler chickens 44
2.13 Shows the mean and normal range of haematological
indices
of blood for broiler chickens. 53
3.1
Composition of experimental diets
using raw
Anthonotha
macrophylla seeds meal. 62
3.2
Composition of experimental diets
using processed
Anthonotha macrophylla seeds meal. 64
3.3
Composition of experimental diets
using blanched
Anthonotha macrophylla seeds meal. 66
4.1 Proximate
composition of raw and variously processed
Anthonotha
macrophylla seeds meal. 85
4.2
Anti-nutritional factors of raw and
variously
processed Anthonotha macrophylla seeds meal. 88
4.3
Mineral composition (macro) of raw
and
variously processed Anthonotha macrophylla seeds meal. 91
4.4
Mineral composition (micro) of raw
and variously
processed Anthonotha macrophylla seeds
meal. 93
4.5
Essential amino acids (%) of raw and
variously
processed Anthonotha
macrophylla seeds meal. 96
4.6 Non-essential amino acids (%) of raw and
variously processed Anthonotha macrophylla seeds meal. 98
4.7
True metabolizable energy (TME)
(kcal/g) and metabolizable
energy corrected to nitrogen
equilibrium (TMEn) of raw and
variously processed Anthonotha
macrophylla seeds meal. 100
4.8.1
Proximate composition and gross energy
of
experimental diets 102
4.8.2
Anti- nutritional factors in experimental
diets 104
4.8.3
Growth performance of broiler bird fed
raw
Anthonotha
macrophylla seeds meal. 107
4.8.4
Cut- parts (as expressed as % dressed
weight)
of broiler birds fed raw Anthonotha macrophylla seeds meal. 109
4.8.5
Organ weights (as expressed as %
dressed weight)
of broiler birds fed raw Anthonotha macrophylla seeds meal. 111
4.8.6 Haematological
indices of broiler bird fed raw
Anthonotha
macrohylla seeds meal. 113
4.8.7
Blood chemistry of birds fed raw
Anthonotha
macrophylla seeds meal. 115
4.8.8
Economics of broiler birds fed raw
Anthonotha
macrophylla seeds meal. 117
4.9.1
Proximate composition and gross energy
composition of experimental diet 119
4.9.2
Anti- nutritional factors in experimental
diets 121
4.9.3
Growth performance for broilers birds
fed variously
processed Anthonotha macrophylla seeds meal. 123
4.9.4
Cut Parts (as expressed as % dressed
weight)
of broiler birds fed variously processed
Anthonotha
macrophylla seeds meal. 125
4.9.5
Organ weights (as expressed as %
dressed weight)
of boilers birds fed variously processed
Anthonotha
macrophylla seeds meal. 127
4.9.6
Haematological indices of boilers birds
fed
variously processed Anthonotha macrophylla seeds meal. 130
4.9.7 Blood
chemistry values of broiler birds fed
variously processed Anthonotha
macrophylla seeds meal. 132
4.9.8
Economics of broiler birds fed variously
processed Anthonotha macrophylla seeds meal. 134
4.10.1
Proximate composition and gross energy
composition of experimental diet 136
4.10.2
Anti nutritional factors in experimental diets 138
4.10.3
Growth performance of brother birds fed
various levels of blanched Anthonotha macrophylla seeds meal. 141
4.10.4
Cut parts (as expressed as % dressed weight) of
broiler birds fed various levels of
blanched
Anthonotha
macrophylla seeds meal. 143
4.10.5
Organ weights (as expressed as % dressed weight) of
broiler birds fed various levels of
blanched
Anthonotha macrophylla seeds meal. 145
4.10.6
Haematological indices of broiler birds fed
various levels of blanched
Anthonotha macrophylla seeds meal. 148
4.10.7
Blood chemistry values of broiler birds fed
various levels of blanched
Anthonotha macrophylla seeds meal. 150
4.10.8
Economics of broiler birds fed
various levels of blanched
Anthonotha
macrophylla seeds meal. 153
LIST
OF PLATES
1: Anthonotha
macrophylla seeds 6
2: Anthonotha
macrophylla plant showing the branches,
leaves and pods 8
CHAPTER
1
INTRODUCTION
1.1
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
The development of alternative plant
protein feed stuffs in livestock and poultry diets will continue to receive
attention in Nigeria as long as the conventional protein sources like soya bean
meal, groundnut cake and fish meal continue to be scarce and expensive. These
feedstuffs are costly because they are competed for by humans and industrial
users. It has become imperative therefore to turn attention to the exploitation
of other novel legumes, particularly those indigenous to the tropics (Tuleum et al., 2012; Akinmutimi and Iboro,
2012). The protein intake of Nigerians has also been on a decline because of
the increasing population. This level of animal protein consumption has direct
influence on the general well-being and health of the populace (Izukanne et al., 2015).
Broiler production has a considerable
potential in the developing countries for the supply of the much needed animal
protein to meet the increasing demands of the Nigerian teeming populace (Alikwe
and Tuagha, 2013; Abdullahi et al.,
2013; Ogunbode et al., 2014) due to short
generation interval and rapid growth rate of broiler chickens (Akinmutimi and
Iboro, 2012).
Feed accounts for 70-80 percent of
the total cost of broiler production in Nigeria (Adetola et al., 2012). This has been attributed to over-reliance on the
conventional feedstuffs such as soyabean and groundnut cake (Abdullahi et al., 2014; Izukanne et al., 2015). The need has therefore
arisen to source for alternative but promising feedstuffs that are not being
consumed by man, and also has no industrial use as at now; Anthonotha mycrophylla falls into this category.
Anthonotha
macrophylla (Beauv, 1964; Durunna, 2006) is a
leguminous plant that is found growing in the wild in Nigeria specifically in
South-Eastern states of the country (Durunna, 2006). It has a crude protein content
of 21.10 – 27.74% (Durunna, 2006; Ubak, 2012) and ME (metabolizable energy) of
2070kcal/kg (Ogwumike,2012) and it is
widely available called Ububa or Ububra (Igbo), aba (Yoruba), Oghabo (Bini),
aban (Isekiri) evborhi (Urhobo), derebiya
(Ijaw), aghabo (Etsako), nya (Ibibio) and hereby called Durubeans
(Durunna, 2006).
Presence
of natural toxic compounds such as tannin, nitrate, trypsin-inhibitor, phytate
and hydrogen cyanide (HCN) has been reported in raw Anthonotha macrophylla seeds meal (Adekunle and Oyerinde, 2004;
Ubak, 2012; Ogwumike, 2012).
1.2 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
1.
To determine the
proximate composition, gross energy composition, amino acid profile, mineral
composition and anti-nutritional factors (Tannin, phytate, HCN and nitrite)
of raw and processed Anthonotha
macrophylla seeds meal.
2.
To determine the
metabolizable energy of both raw and processed Anthonotha macrophylla
seeds meal.
3.
To determine the dietary
level of inclusion of raw Anthonotha
macrophylla seeds meal as a replacement for soya bean meal in
broiler diet that will enhance good performance using parameters such as growth
performance, cut-parts, organ weights, haematological
and biochemical properties of blood as
indices.
4.
To determine the best or recommended
processing method of Anthonotha macrophylla seeds meal in broiler diet
using parameters such as growth performance,
cut-parts, organ weights, haematological
and biochemical properties of blood
as indices.
5.
To determine the optimal dietary level of
inclusion of the best or recommended
processing method of Anthonotha macrophylla seeds meal using
parameters such as growth performance,
cut-parts, organ weights, haematological
and biochemical properties of blood as indices.
6.
To determine the economics of diets.
1.3 STATEMENT
OF THE PROBLEM
1.
Conventional protein sources for poultry
feeding are scarce, expensive and less cost-effective.
2.
Anthonotha
macrophylla seeds is a potential protein source
as it is cheaply available and
without competitive utilization. Research work on proximate composition, gross energy composition,
anti-nutritional factors, amino-acid profile
and mineral composition is scanty. Information on metabolizable energy for both raw and processed is
yet to be reported.
3.
The dietary level of inclusion of the raw and
processed Anthonotha macrophylla seeds meal as replacement for soya bean meal that will enhance good performance in broiler chicken
is yet to be reported.
1.4 JUSTIFICATION
At the end of the experiment the
proximate composition, gross energy composition, amino acid profile, mineral
composition and anti-nutritional factors of both raw and processed Anthonotha macrophylla seeds meal would
be better known and documented. Also the metabolizable energy would have been documented
and hence ascertain it’s used in ration formulation. When the economics of the
diet is established and levels of Inclusion of both raw and processed Anthonotha macrophylla seeds meal that
will give good performance are determined, it will help to reduce the cost of
broiler production in Nigeria. This will encourage reduction in the unit price
of broiler meat and make the product more affordable, leading to increase in
the consumption of animal protein in Nigeria.
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