ABSTRACT
Four experiments were conducted to determine the chemical and nutritional potentials of Icacina mannii meal as an alternative energy source for weaner pigs. Experiment 1 investigated the proximate, gross energy, anti-nutritional factors and mineral compositions of the raw Icacina mannii meals (RO), Icacina mannii meals pressed with oil (IPO), Icacina mannii meals pressed and toasted (IPT), and fermented and pressed Icacina manni meal (FPI) and metabolizable energy of raw and variously processed Icacina mannii meal were determined using 12 hybrids cross bred growing pigs with a weight range of 26-30kg. In experiment 2, the level of 5% inclusion of raw Icacina mannii meal in weaner pig’s diet was determined. Experiment 3 evaluated the performance of weaner pigs fed diets in which maize component was replaced by IPO, IPT and FPI at 6% raw inclusion level. Experiment 5 determined the dietary inclusion level of fermented and pressed Icacina mannii meals (FPI) in weaner pig’s diet. The experiments were carried out in a completely randomized design consisting of three replicates with two (2) weaner pigs per replicate. In experiment 1, the proximate and mineral compositions of IPO was higher (P<0.05) than others. FPI resulted in the highest percentage reduction of anti-nutritional factors (P<0.05).The IPT had the highest (P<0.05) value for metabolizable energy (2.73kcal/g). In experiment 2, the raw Icacina manni meals significantly (P<0.05) depressed growth as the levels of inclusion increased from 7.5% to 10%. For nutrient digestibility and utilization, raw Icacina manni meals did not revealed negative impacts on the nutrients utilization of weaner pigs. Diet 2 (5%) showed similar (P>0.05) economics of diet with control diet. The blood constituents analyzed revealed normal range values except for PCV for diet 3 (7.5%) and diet 4 (10%), MCV, MCH and MCHC for all the diets, total protein for diet 4 (10%), albumin for diet 3 (7.5%) and diet 4 (10%), cholesterol and alkaline phosphatase for all the diets. In experiment 3, body weights gain, FCR and economics of diets showed no significant (P>0.05) difference. Processed Icacina mannii meals significant (P<0.05) improved nutrient digestibility and utilization of weaner pigs. The blood constituents analyzed revealed normal range values except for cholesterol for diet 2 (IPO). In experiment 4, weaner pigs fed 10% FPI (diet 3) and 12% FPI (DIET 4) performed better for body weight gains, FCR, and economics of diets among others. Graded levels of FPI comparably (P>0.05) improved nutrient digestibility and nutrient utilization of weaner pigs among majority of the parameters measured. The blood constituents analyzed revealed normal range values except for MCH and Cholesterol for all the diets. It is therefore concluded that fermented and processed Icacina mannii meal emerged as the best processing technique among others. Quantitative replacement of maize with raw Icacina mannii meals at 5% dietary level of inclusion was not deleterious to weaner pigs. Weaner pigs fed diet containing fermented and processed Icacina mannii meal (FPI) gave the best performance numerically among the pigs fed differently processed tuber meal at 6% dietary level of inclusion. The dietary level of inclusion of quantitative replacement of the maize with the product of the best processing technique (FPI) was 10% - 12%.
TABLE
OF CONTENTS
Title Page i
Declaration ii
Certification iii
Dedication iv
Acknowledgements v
Table of contents
vi
List of Tables xi
List of Plates xiii
List of Figure xiv
Abstract xv
CHAPTER 1:
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study 1
1.2 Objectives
of the Study 2
1.3 Statement
of Problem 3
1.4 Justification 4
CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1 Origin/Distribution
5
2.2 Common
Names 5
2.3 Synonym 5
2.4 Taxonomy 5
2.5 Botany 7
2.6 Ecology
9
2.7 Agronomy
9
2.8 Chemical
Compositions 10
2.9
Function Of Mineral In Pigs 12
2.10 Anti
- Nutritional Factors 15
2.10.1 Tannin 15
2.10.2 Phytate 16
2.10.3 Hydrogen cyanide (HCN) 17
2.10.4 Oxalates 18
2.10.5 Galactosamine (GAL) 19
2.11 Traditional
Processing of Roots and Tubers 20
2.12 Constraints
in the Traditional Processing of Root /Tubers 20
2.13 Traditional
Processing Techniques 22
2.13.1 Processed
with oil 22
2.13.2 Fermented
and processed for 72 hours 23
2.13.3 Processed
and toasted (Garri form) 25
2.14 Dietary Energy for Pigs 25
2.14.1 Measurement
of energy 26
2.14.2 Deficiencies
of energy in pig nutrition 28
2.15 Digestibility
of Nutrients 30
2.15.1 Assumptions of digestibility 31
2.15.2 Factors influencing digestibility of nutrients in growing pigs 32
2.16 Uses
of Icacina mannii 37
2.16.1 Cropping uses 37
2.16.2 Livestock uses 39
2.17 Blood
39
2.17.1 Blood chemistry 39
2.17.2. Haematological indices 44
2.17.2.1 Haemoglobin (Hb) 44
2.17.2.2 Red blood cell (RBC) 45
2.17.2.3 Packed cell volume (PCV) 45
2.17.2.4 White blood cell (WBC) 46
2.17.2.5
Mean corpuscular volume
(MCV) 50
2.17.2.6 Mean
corpuscular haemoglobin (MCH) 50
2.17.2.7Mean corpuscular haemoglobin concentration (MCHC) 50
2.18
Economy
of Production 51
2.18.1 Cost-effective feeding strategies for
growing pigs 52
2.18.2 Cost/Kg of feed 57
2.18.3 Cost of feed consumed 57
2.18.4 Cost/Kg weight gain 57
2.18.5 Revenue 58
2.18.6 Gross margin 58
CHAPTER
3: MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1 Experimental
Location 59
3.2
Feedstuff and Processing of Icacina
mannii Tubers 59
3.3
Experimental Animals
and their Management 61
3.4
Experimental Diets 62
3.4.1 Raw Icacina manni meal (RO) 62
3.4.2
Processed Icacina manni meals 63
3.4.3 Fermented and processed Icacina manni meals 64
3.5
Chemical Analysis 65
3.6
Mineral Determination 65
3.7
Determination of
Anti-Nutrients 67
3.7.1
Tannic acid (tannin) 67
3.7.2
Phytate 68
3.7.3
Hydrogen cyanide (HCN) 68
3.7.4
Oxalate 69
3.7.5
Galactosamine 70
3.8
Determination of Metabolizable
Energy of Raw and
Processed
Icacina manni Meals. 71
3.9 Determination
of Nutrient Digestibility of Weaner Pigs Fed
72
3.10 Growth
Performance 74
3.11 Haematological and Blood Chemistry Analysis
74
3.11.1 Red blood cell count 75
3.11.2 Haemoglobin Estimation
(cyanmethaemoglobin method) 76
3.11.3 Total white blood cell 76
3.11.4 Packed cell volume 77
3.11.5 Total
protein 77
3.11.6 Albumin 77
3.11.7
Alkaline phosphatase 78
3.11.8 Cholesterol 78
3.11.9 Creatinine 79
3.12
Economics of the Experimental Diets 79
3.13
Experimental Design and Date Collection 80
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Proximate
Composition of Raw and differently Processed
Icacina
mannii Meals 81
4.2 Anti-nutritional factors of Raw and
differently Processed
Icacina mannii Meals 87
4.3 Mineral Composition (Macro) of Raw and
differently
Processed Icacina
mannii Meal 90
4.4 Mineral Composition (Micro) of Raw and
differently
Processed Icacina
mannii Meals 93
4.5 Metabolizable Energy (ME) (kcal/g) of Raw and
differently
Processed Icacina mannii Meals. 96
4.6 Experiment Two (Raw) 98
4.6.1 Proximate
composition and gross energy of diets containing graded level
of
raw Icacina mannii meal 98
4.6.2 Anti-nutritional factors in
diet containing graded level
of Icacina mannii meal 100
4.6.3 Growth performance
of weaner pigs fed diet containing graded level
of
Icacina
mannii meal 102
4.6.4 Haematological indices of weaner pigs fed diet
containing graded level
of
raw Icacina manni meals 105
4.6.5
Blood
chemistry of weaner pigs fed diet
containing graded level
of raw Icacina manni meals 107
4.6.6 Apparent
digestibility coefficients of weaner pigs fed diet containing graded level
of raw Icacina
manni meals 110
4.6.7 Energy
utilization of weaner pigs fed diet containing
graded level
of
raw Icacina manni meals 112
4.6.8: Nitrogen
balance and protein utilization of weaner pigs fed diet containing graded level
of raw Icacina manni meals 114
4.6.9 Cost-analysis of weaner pigs fed diet containing graded level
of
raw Icacina manni meals 116
4.7 Experiment Three (Processing Methods) 119
4.7.1 Proximate
composition and gross energy composition of diet containing
differently
processed Icacina mannii
meals. 119
4.7.2 Anti-nutritional factors of diet
containing differently processed
Icacina manni meals. 121
4.7.3 Growth performance of weaner pigs fed of diet containing
differently processed
Icacina manni
meals 123
4.7.4
Haematological indices of weaner
pig fed of diet containing
differently processed Icacina mannii meals 125
4.7.5
Blood chemistry of weaner pigs fed of diet containing
differently processed Icacina mannii meals 127
4.7.6
Apparent digestibility
coefficients of weaner pigs fed of diet containing
differently processed
Icacina mannii meals 129
4.7.7 Energy utilization
of weaner pigs fed of diet
containing
differently
processed Icacina manni meals 131
4.7.8. Nitrogen
balance and protein utilization of weaner pigs fed of diet containing
differently
processed Icacina manni meals 133
4.7.9. Cost analysis of weaner pigs fed of diet
containing
differently
processed Icacina mannii meals. 135
4.8 Experiment Four (Fermented and Processed Icacina
manni Meals) 137
4.8.1 Proximate composition and gross energy
composition of diets containing
graded levels of fermented and pressed Icacina manni meals (FPI) 137
4.8.2 Anti-nutritional
factors of diets containing graded levels
of fermented and pressed Icacina
manni meals (FPI) 139
4.8.3
Growth performance of weaner pigs fed diets containing
graded levels
of fermented
and processed Icacina mannii meals (FPI)
141
4.8.4
Haematological indices of weaner
pigs fed diets containing
graded levels of fermented and processed Icacina
mannii meals (FPI) 144
4.8.5. Blood
chemistry of weaner pigs fed diets containing
graded levels of
fermented and
processed Icacina manni meals (FPI) 146
[
4.8.6.
Apparent digestibility coefficients of
weaner pigs fed diets containing graded levels
of fermented and processed Icacina
mannii meals (FPI) 148
4.8.7
Energy utilization of weaner pigs fed diets containing
graded levels
of fermented and
processed Icacina mannii meals 150
4.8.8 Nitrogen
balance and protein utilization of weaner pigs fed diets
containing
graded levels
of fermented and processed Icacina
mannii meals (FPI) 152
4.8.9. Cost
analysis of weaner pigs fed diets
containing graded levels of fermented and processed Icacina mannii meals (FPI) 154
Conclusion and Recommendation 157
References
160
LIST OF TABLES
2.1 The proximate composition of raw and
differently
processed
Icacina mannii meals 11
2.2 Proximate composition
of fresh and processed
Icacina
mannii meals (%DM) 11
2.3 Normal
range of blood chemistry indices of
weaner or growing
pigs 43
2.4 Shows
the mean and normal range of haematological indices
of blood for weaners or growing
pigs. 51
3.1 Composition
of Experimental diets using raw
Icacina mannii meals 62
3.2 Composition of Experimental diets using
processed
Icacina
mannii
meals 63
3.3 Composition
of experimental diets using fermented and
processed Icacina mannii meals (FPI) 64
4.1 Proximate
composition of raw and differently
processed
Icacina
manni meals 86
4.2 Anti-nutritional
factors of raw and differently
processed
Icacina
manni meals 89
4.3
Macro minerals Composition of Raw
and differently processed
Icacina manni meals 92
4.4 Micro mineral composition of raw and
differently
processed Icacina mannii meals 95
4.5 Metabolizable energy of raw and
differently processed
Icacina mannii meals. 97
4.6.1 Proximate
composition and gross energy of diets
containing graded levels of
raw Icacina
mannii meals 99
4.6.2 Anti-nutritional factors of diets
containing graded levels of
raw Icacina manni meals 101
4.6.3 Growth Performance of Weaner pigs fed
diets containing graded levels of raw
Icacina
mannii meals 104
4.6.4 Haematological
indices of weaner pigs fed diets
containing graded levels of raw
Icacina
mannii
meals. 106
4.6.5 Blood chemistry of weaner pigs fed diets containing graded levels of
raw Icacina
mannii meals 109
4.6.6 Apparent
digestibility coefficients of weaner pigs fed diets containing
graded
levels of raw Icacina mannii
meals 111
4.6.7
Energy utilization of weaner pigs fed diets
containing graded levels of
raw Icacina
mannii meals 113
4.6.8
Nitrogen balance and protein
utilization of weaner pigs fed diets
containing graded levels of
raw Icacina
manni meals 115
4.7.1 Cost-analysis
of weaner pigs fed diets containing
graded levels of
raw
Icacina manni meals 118
4.7.1 Proximate composition and gross energy of diets
containing differently processed Icacina
manni meals 120
4.7.2 Anti-
nutritional factors of diets containing
differently processed
Icacina
manni meals 122
4.7.3 Growth
performance of weaner pigs fed diets
containing differently processed
Icacina
manni
meals. 124
4.7.4 Haematological
indices of weaner pigs fed diets
containing differently
processed
Icacina
manni
meals 126
4.7.5 Blood
chemistry of weaner pigs fed diets
containing differently processed
Icacina
manni
meals 128
4.7.6 Apparent
digestibility coefficients of weaner pigs fed diets containing
differently processed Icacina manni meals 130
4.7.7 Energy utilization
of weaner pigs fed diets containing differently y processed
Icacina
manni meals 132
4.7.8 Nitrogen
balance and protein utilization of weaner
pigs fed
diets containing differently processed Icacina mannii meals 134
4.7.2
Cost analysis of weaner pigs fed
diets containing differently processed
Icacina manni meals 136
4.8.1
Proximate composition and gross energy
of diets containing graded
levels of
fermented and pressed Icacina mannii meals 138
4.8.2 Anti-nutritional
factors of diets containing graded
levels of
fermented and pressed Icacina mannii meals 140
4.8.3
Growth performance of weaner pigs fed diets containing graded
levels
of fermented and pressed Icacina mannii meals 143
4.8.4 The
haematological indices of weaner pigs fed diets
containing graded
levels fermented and processed Icacina mannii meals 145
4.8.5 Blood chemistry of weaner pigs fed diets containing graded
levels fermented and processed Icacina
mannii meals 147
4.8.6 Apparent digestibility coefficients of weaner
pigs fed diets containing graded
levels
fermented and processed Icacina
mannii meals 149
4.8.7 Energy utilization of weaner
pigs fed diets containing graded
levels fermented and processed Icacina mannii meals 151
4.8.8 Nitrogen
balance and protein utilization of weaner pigs
fed diets
containing graded levels fermented and processed
Icacina
mannii meals 153
4.8.9 Cost analysis of weaner pigs fed diets containing graded levels
fermented
and processed Icacina mannii meals (FPI) 156
LIST OF PLATES
1: Icacina
mannii tuber 6
2: Icacina
mannii plant 8
3: Icacina
mannii fruits 38
LIST OF FIGURES
1. The critical period of energy demand in the
pig through its life and diseases that may be associated if an energy
deficiency arises 30
CHAPTER
1
INTRODUCTION
1.1
BACKGROUND
INFORMATION
Cereal grains such as maize which is
a major energy source is in short supply due to competition between man and
livestock animals. This therefore results in very high prices of maize at certain
periods of the year (Adesehinwa, 2007; Irekhore et al., 2015; Amaefule, 2016). Pig production has a fast link in solving
animal protein deficiency problem. This is because of its high prolificacy,
fast growth rate, early maturity, high meat yield and ease of feeding and
management compared to other livestock species (Irekhore et al., 2015).
Increasing cost of conventional
feedstuff such as maize is a major constraint to pig production in Nigeria. The
problem of increasing the scope of animal production to provide the much needed
animal protein has become pronounced in the face of the ever-increasing human population
(Adeyemi and Akinfala, 2019). In order to reduce the cost of feeding this
species of livestock, which competes directly with human beings for the same
feedstuff, attempts have been made to use alternative protein and energy
sources that are not directly utilized by man (Adeyemi and Akinfala, 2019). One
of such feedstuffs is Icacina manni commonly
known as false yam or earth ball in English (Fay, 1987; Umoh, 2013). It is locally
referred to as Bankanas in Senegal, Manankaso in Gambia, Mumu in Congo, and
Pane in Sudan and Takwara in Ghana (Umoh, 2013). It is known in Nigeria as Urumbia
or Eriagbo among the Igbos, Gbegbe by the Yoruba’s and Efik Isong by the
Ibibios and Efik (Asuzu and Abubakar, 1996; Etukudo, 2003; Ekeno, 2014). It
belongs to the family Icacinaceae (Fay,
1987). Icacina manni is a shrubby plant
with underground fleshy tuber which is widely available and not seasonal (Umoh,
2013).
The tubers which show considerable
variation in size, ranged from 30 to 45cm in length up to 100cm, with a diameter
of about 30cm and weighing from 3 to 25kg/tuber. Icacina
manni tuber, which is a great source of emergency moisture and food energy,
can survive at least for a year without rain (NRCNAP, 2008). In is reported
to have an average yield of 2-3 tonne/ha in Senegal, although in some parts of West Africa,
yields where reported to reach 20 tonne / ha (Fay, 1987; Umoh, 2013).
Icacina
manni is reported to contain crude protein of
4.81-6.25% (Ekeno, 2014) and 3.45-3.78% (Comfort and Idorenyin, 2018) and
calculated metabolisable energy of 2817.89 – 3265.78kcal/kg (Ekeno, 2014).
Presence of natural toxic compounds such as cyanogenic glycoside and phytic
acid which render phosphorus unhydrolisable by intestinal enzymes has been reported
in Icacina manni meal (Fassiet,
1993). Ekpo and Udedibie (2012) also
reported that Icacina mannii contains
gummy substances such as galactosamine that limits or reduces it digestibility when
consumed by animals.
1.2 OBJECTIVES
OF THE STUDY
The broad objective is to develop Icacina
mannii meal as an alternative energy source in the diet of weaner pigs.
The specific objectives are to determine:
1) the
proximate composition, gross energy, mineral composition, metabolizable energy and
anti- nutritional factors (tannins, phytate, hydrogen cyanide (HCN), oxalates and
galactosamine) of raw and processed Icacina mannii meals. .
2)
the dietary level of inclusion of
raw Icacina mannii meal as a
replacement for maize in weaners pigs diet
that will enhance good performance
using growth performance, haematological
and serum biochemical properties of blood as response criteria.
3)
the appropriate processing
method for Icacina mannii meal viz fermented
and pressed (F&P), pressed with oil (PPO) and pressed and toasted
(P&T) using growth performance,
haematological and serum biochemical properties
of blood as response criteria.
4) the
optimum dietary level of inclusion of the appropriate or recommended processing
method of Icacina mannii meal using growth performance, hematological and serum biochemical properties of blood as
indices.
5) the
digestibility and nutrient utilization of weaner pigs fed dietary raw and processed Icacina mannii meals.
6)
the economic characteristics of production and feeding of diets containing varying dietary levels of Icacina mannii meal to weaner pigs.
1.3
STATEMENT OF PROBLEM
1)
Animal protein consumption
of an average Nigerian is low due to high cost/kg of meat.
2)
Icacina
mannii
tubers is a potential source
of energy and it is cheaply
available and without competitive
utilization. Research information on proximate composition, gross
energy, and mineral composition is still very scanty. Information on
metabolizable energy for both raw and processed tuber meal is yet to be
reported.
3)
The dietary level of inclusion of raw or processed Icacina mannii meal as replacement
for maize that will enhance
good performance in weaner pigs
is still very much under
reported.
4)
The economics/
profitability of its usage is yet to be reported.
1.4 JUSTIFICATION
At the expiration of the experiment,
the proximate composition, gross energy, mineral composition and anti-nutritional factors of both raw and
processed Icacina mannii meals would
be better known and documented.
The metabolizable energy would have been
documented also to ascertain it’s use
in ration formulation.When the economics
of the diets is established and
levels of inclusion of both raw and
processed Icacina manni meals
that will give good performance are determined, it will help to reduce the cost of weaner pig production in Nigeria. This will encourage reduction in
the unit price of pig meat and make the product more affordable, leading to
increase in the consumption of animal protein in Nigeria.
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