ABSTRACT
Effect of Moringa oleifera (Moringa) and Azadirachta indica (Neem) leaf meals as feed ingredients in diets for broiler chickens was evaluated. Six isonitrogenous and isocaloric diets represented as treatments 1 (control, 0% leaf meal), 2 (5% MOLM), 3 (5% AILM), 4 (2.5%AILM+ 2.5% MOLM), 5 (3% MOLM + 2% AILM), and 6 (2% MOLM + 3% AILM) were fed to one hundred and forty four Agrited broiler chicks for 49 days in a completely randomized design. The six treatments were in triplicates of eight (8) birds per replicate. Birds were offered feed and water ad-libitum. The parameters measured were live weight, weight gains, and feed consumed. Feed conversion ratio and costs in terms of feed cost per kilogram weight gain, cost per kilogram of feed, and cost of feed consumed were calculated. Carcass response, organ response and haematological parameters were also obtained after the 49 day trial. Dietary leaf meals supplemented groups revealed variable results in feed intake, weight gain, and haematological indices. The results showed that, the daily feed intake and daily weight gain of broiler chickens on T4 diets recorded the highest values (141.33g) and (49.66g) respectively which differed (P < 0.05) from values obtained for birds on T2, T3, T5 and T6. Final body weight at 8 weeks was recorded highest among birds on treatment 1 but did not significantly differ (P>0.05%) from those on treatment 4. However, for the feed conversion ratio, T4 recorded the best value (2.53) which differed (P < 0.05) from those of T1, T2, T3, T5 and T6. The cost of feed/kg did not differ significantly (P > 0.05). The cost of production/bird was significantly high (P<0.05) in T6 when compared to those of T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5. Cut-parts and organ proportions presented as a percentage dressed weight showed no significant (P > 0.05) differences. Haematology and serum biochemistry values were in conformity with standards for healthy broiler chickens. It is therefore, concluded that combining 2.5% of Moringa oleifera with 2.5% of Azadirachta indica leaf meals as feed ingredients in broiler starter and finisher diets encouraged healthy growth and may serve as supplements for antibiotics, especially when birds are reared where there is minimal access to veterinary service and in organic poultry production practices.
Abstract
xii
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1
Background of the Study 1
1.2
Statement of Problem 4
1.3 Objective of the Study 5
1.4 Justification 6
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Leaf
Meal as Feed Material for Poultry Feed 8
2.2 Origin
and Botanical Description of Moringa plant 9
2.2.1 Propagation
10
2.2.2
Flowering 10
2.2.3 The
fruit 10
2.2.4 The
leaf 11
2.3 Nutritive Value of Moringa oleifera Leaf Meal 11
2.4 Inclusion level of Moringa oleifera Leaf Meal in Broiler Chicken Diet 13
2.5
Immunology Phytochemicals 14
2.6
Other uses of Moringa oleifera 16
2.7 Anti-nutritional factors in Moringa oleifera 17
2.7.1
Alkaloids 18
2.7.2 Phytate 18
2.7.3 Saponin 19
2.7.4 Tannins 19
2.8
Botanical Description of Neem Plant (Azadirachta indica) 20
2.9 Nutritional
Values of Azadirachta indica Leaf
Meal 21
2.10 Inclusion Levels of Azadirachta. indica
Leaf Meal 23
2.11 Phytochemical
Compounds in Azadirachta indica leaves 24
2.12 Therapeutic
roles of Azadirachta
indica 25
2.12.1
The Antibacterial Potential of Azadirachta indica 26
2.12.2 Anti-inflammatory Agent in Azadirachta indica 27
2.13 Anti-nutritional
factors in Azadirachta indica leaves 28
2.14 Synergistic
combination of Herbal Leaf Meals (Moringa
oleifera leaf meal and
Azadirachta indica leaf meal) 28
2.15
Blood 29
2.16
Blood Chemistry 32
2.17
Haematological indices 33
2.18
Importance of carcass quality 34
CHAPTER 3: MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1 Experimental
Site
36
3.2 Experimental
Materials Used 36
3.3 Experimental
Birds and Management 36
3.4 Experimental
Diets 37
3.5 Chemical
Analysis 41
3.5.1 Moisture content determination 41
3.5.2
Crude Protein determination 41
3.5.3 Total Ash determination 42
3.5.4
Fat determination 43
3.5.5
Crude Fibre determination 43
3.5.6
Nitrogen Free Extract determination 44
3.6 Experimental Design 44
3.7 Data
Collection 45
3.7.1 Feed intake (g) 45
3.7.2 Average
Body weight gain (g) 45
3.7.3
Feed conversion ratio 46
3.7.4 Data
on Average weekly mortality Rate (%) 46
3.7.5 Carcass
quality examination 46
3.8 Haematology and Blood Serum Analyses 47
3.9 Cost
Benefit Analyses 48
3.10
Statistical Analyses 49
CHAPTER
4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Proximate
Composition of Dried Moringa Oleifera
Leaf and Dried Azadirachta
indica Leaf 50
4.2 Weight
Gain, Feed Intake and Feed Conversion Ratio Parameters 51
4.2.1 Daily feed intake 52
4.2.2 Daily
weight gain 53
4.2.3 Feed
conversion ratio 53
4.2.4
Mortality rate 54
4.3
Cost
Benefit Analyses of Broiler Chickens at Starter Phase 54
4.3.1 Cost per kilogram of feed 55
4.3.2 Cost
of production 55
4.3.3 Cost
per weight gain 56
4.3.4 Revenue 56
4.3.5 Gross
Revenue 56
4.4 Performance Parameters of Broilers Chickens
fed Graded Levels of Moringa
oleifera and Azadirachta indica leaf meals at Finisher phase 56
4.4.1 Daily feed intake 57
4.4.2 Daily
weight gain 58
4.4.3
Feed conversion ratio 58
4.4.4
Mortality rate 59
4.5 Carcass
Characteristics 60
4.6 Organ Response
Analysis of Broiler Chickens fed Graded Levels of Moringa
oleifera and
Azadirachta indica leaf meals at Finisher
phase 61
4.7
Haematological Parameter of Broiler Chickens fed Graded Levels of Moringa
oleifera and Azadirachta
indica leaf meals at Finisher Phase 62
4.7.1 Red blood cells 63
4.7.2
White blood cell 64
4.7.3
Haemoglobin 64
4.7.4 Packed cell volume 65
4.7.5
Mean courpuscular volume (MCV) 65
4.7.6 Mean copuscular haemoglobin 66
4.7.7
Mean copuscular haemoglobin concentration (MCHC) 66
4.8 Serum Biochemical Indices of Broiler Chickens
fed the experimental diets at
Finisher Phase 67
4.8.1 Total Protein 67
4.8.2 Albumen 68
4.8.3 Cholesterol 68
4.8.4 Creatinine 69
4.8.5 Aspartate
aminotransferase (AST) 69
4.8.6 Alanine aminotransferase (ALT) 69
4.9 Cost Benefit Analyses of Broiler Chickens at
Finisher Phase 70
4.9.1 Cost per kilogram of feed 70
4.9.2 Cost
of feed consumed 71
4.9.3 Cost
of production 71
4.9.4 Cost
per weight gain: 71
CHAPTER
5: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1
Conclusion 73
5.2
Recommendations 73
References 74
LIST
OF TABLES
2.1: Normal Haematological Indices of Blood 33
2.2:
Normal Haematological range in Broiler
Chickens 34
3.1:
Percentage composition of Experimental Diets at Starter Phase (1-5week) 39
3.2:
Percentage composition of Experimental Diets at Finisher Phase (5-8week) 40
4.1:
Proximate composition of Dried Moringa
oleifera leaf 50
4.2:
Performance Parameters of Broilers fed Graded Levels of Moringa
oleifera and
Azadirachta indica leaf meals
at Starter Phase 52
4.3: Cost
Benefit Analyses of Broiler Chickens fed Graded Levels of Moringa oleifera
and Azadirachta indica leaf meals at Starter Phase 55
4.4:
Performance Parameters of Broilers Chickens fed Graded Levels of Moringa
oleifera and
Azadirachta indica leaf meals at
Finisher Phase 57
4.5 Carcass
Analyses of Broiler Chickens fed Graded Levels of Moringa oleifera and
Azadirachta indica
leaf meals at Finisher Phase 60
4.6: Organ Response Analysis of Broiler Chickens
fed Graded Levels of Moringa oleifera
and Azadirachta indica leaf meals at Finisher Phase 61
4.7: Haematological Indices of Broiler
Chickens fed Graded Levels of Moringa oleifera
and Azadirachta indica leaf meals 63
4.8:
Serum Biochemical Indices of Broiler Chickens fed Graded Levels of Moringa
oleifera and Azadirachta indica leaf meals 67
4.9: Cost
Benefit Analyses of Broiler Chickens fed Graded Levels of Moringa oleifera
and Azadirachta indica leaf
meals at Finisher Phase
71
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
In livestock keeping, Poultry especially
broiler and layers are the major enterprise practicing in almost every part of
Nigeria. They have been effective sources of livelihood to many Nigerians, as
they have short generation interval (Akinmutimi and Onwukwe, 2002). Their vast
benefits include source of income, quality protein and quick returns on
investment (Ukachukwu, 2008). The target of a good
modern farmer is to produce healthy birds with quality meat and eggs without
harmful residues and within a short time interval. For this to be successful, availability and supply of feedstuffs to
meet the nutrient requirements of the poultry birds for their optimum
production should be considered as the major factor (Ukachukwu,
2008) in addition to
proper hygiene, potable water and management (Saxena, 2008).
To maximize the production of these products to meet the animal protein
requirements for human and other industrial needs, high cost of feed is one of
the major problems poultry enterprise has as the prices of conventional feed
stuffs are still high (Akinmutimi et al.,
2000).
The major cause of this challenge is traced
to be stiff competition for energy and protein feed stuffs between humans and
livestocks due to conventional feedstuffs used in poultry feeds are also use in
human diets (Ogbuewu et al., 2010c).
Also, high exchange rate results in high cost
of conventional vegetable protein such as soybean and groundnut cake in
developing countries like Nigeria due to most of these feed materials are still
being imported (Esonu et al., 2006).
Because of the increasing cost of these ingredients, many research work have
been conducted to overcome these challenges, and this
has triggered the search for alternative means to produce birds at reduced cost
using leaf meals as
substitute to conventional resources in the formulation of poultry diets.
Broiler
birds have the ability to convert raw feed stuffs and by-products into high
proteinous food which is important in improving human nutritional standards (Mukhtar,
2007). However,
several studies have revealed that leaf meals of plants such as Alchornia
cordifolia, Leuceana leucocephala, Moringa oleifera Amarathus cruentus, Mucuna
utilis, Azadirachta indica,Curcuma longa and Cinnamomum zylenicum are important feed resources and organic
supplement to many monogastrics including poultry.
Organic supplements have been proved to be beneficial in amendment of
deficiencies in feed without causing any harm to human and animal health as
well as the environment. They also play a vital role in promoting livestock
performance, reducing cost, stimulate digestive organs, increase profitability
and nutritional value of feed (Alagbe and Soares, 2018). Some of these leaf
meals contain phytochemical
compounds.
Phytochemicals are compounds produced by
plants which help them to maintain their healthy life but are not essential
nutrients, because some of the phytochemicals decrease nutrient intake when
they are in excess (Ansari, 2012). These chemicals occur naturally in plant
parts including the leaves. The biological functions they perform include
antioxidant activities, physiological agents, antimicrobial agents and so many
other functions and this depends on the type of phytochemical available. With
this reason, researches have been directed to the use of plants with phytogenic
effects as feed stuffs for poultry (Ansari, 2012). Many plants are beneficial in some aspects
they are derived from their specific bioactive compounds (Kamel, 2000). Herbs are Phytogenic additives often called
phytobiotics (Ansari, 2012) and are recommended to enhance
metabolic processes and the health condition of livestock (Panagasa et al., 2012).
Moringa oleifera is a deciduous soft wood tree which grows fast with drought-resistant
ability, native to the southern foothills of the Himalayas in northwestern
India but grows in several African countries, like Nigeria (Anwar et al., 2007). The leaves are
medicinal as they have antibacterial and antifungal activities (Nickon et al., 2008), natural antioxidant
compounds (Sreelatha and Padma, 2009), such as chlorogenic acid and caffeic
acid (Siddhuraju and Becker, 2003). The press cake has protein that is
positively charged and because of this potential, it is used as an antibiotic (Ologhobo et
al., 2014).
Azadirachta indica commonly known as neem is a non-leguminous
tree that belongs to the family Meliceae (Arbonnier, 2002). This tree
species is believed to be originated from Indian subcontinent (Girish and
Shankara, 2008) and Senegal (Orwa et al.,
2009). It is a fast-growing tree which has a height of about 20 metres. Many
bioactive compounds present in Azadirachta indicainclude
azadirone, vilasinin, C-secomeliacins, promeliacin, limonoids, gedunin,
azadirachtin, nimbin, salanin and other non-iosprenoids, as well as
protein/amino acids, polysaccharides, sulphurous compounds, polyphenolics such
as flavonoids, their glycosides, dihydrochalcone, coumarins, tannins and
aliphatic compounds (Biswas et al., 2002).
However, more than
one hundred and thirty-five compounds have been identified from different Azadirachta indica tree (Unigwe et al., 2016).
Medicinal plants contain several bioactive
chemical compounds which are mainly stored in the secretory glandular epidermal
trichomes present in the leaves (Prakash et
al., 2006). Recently, the concerns of scientists are
reducing the abdominal fat and increasing the valuable parts of carcass
(Al-kassie, 2009). Numerous researchers have observed in their studies that Azadirachta indica leaf meal and Moringa oleifera leaf meal have
cholesterol lowering effect in humans and animals due to the presence of
bioactive compounds in them. There is evidence that combination of the two
leaf meals in the feeds of poultry would yield synergistic
results as regards to weight gain, feed efficiency, lowered mortality and
increased live ability in poultry birds.
1.2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM
Brioler
Chickens have the ability to convert raw feed stuffs and by-products into high
proteinous food. They are not very hardy birds and can get sick often if not
properly managed. Leaf meals of medicinal plants such as Moringa oleifera and Azadirachta
indica have been identified as plants with several bioactive chemical
compounds which help in maintaining life by promoting performance of livestocks
and nutritional value of feed.
The
problems of leaf meals are known to be high fiber content and the presence of
anti-nutritional factors in them which affect the food value by reducing
digestion or absorption especially when consumed in excess. They may also
chelate with the nutrients and form binding factor with the food values
thereby, causing nutrient deficiency. They may also change the blood profiles.
These factors limit the inclusion of medicinal leaf meals in larger quantities
due to the techniques for detoxifying these anti-nutritional factors have not
been developed.
Moringa oleifera
has good nutritional value but bulky quantities had to be collected to make a
reasonable quantity of leaf meal to meet the subsequent inclusion levels which
made the work tedious as much quantities yield small quantity of leaf meal.
Consequently, the bitterness of Azadirachta
indica leaf meal impacted objectionable taste to the feed which limited the
feed intake of the chicks fed the treatment diets contained the leaf meal.
1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
Growth
performance and blood profiles are important indices of physiological state of
animals (Khan and Zafer, 2005). Serum biochemistry and hematological studies
have been found useful to determine
clinical condition of the health status in livestocks and birds because
whatever an animal ingests either in solid or liquid form must report in the
blood profile (Nodu et al., 2016).
Variation in blood picture as a result of certain conditions such as stress,
infections and toxicity and blood constituents provide vital information for
clinical investigations and nutritional evaluation (Aderemi 2004; Khan and
Zafer, 2005).
For
the fact that so many plants with medicinal properties do not form residual
(Tipu et al., 2006), the objective of
this work were to:
1.
determine the chemical
composition of the test ingredients;
2.
determine the proximate
composition of the experimental diets;
3.
investigate the response of broiler chicks to Moringa oleifera and
Azadirachta indica on growth performance, carcass and organ
characteristics;
4.
determine the haematology and
serum biochemical indices of broiler chickens fed the treatment diets;
5.
evaluate cost benefit analysis of
broiler chickens using the treatment diets.
1.4 JUSTIFICATION
The consumption of Poultry meat is steadily
increasing worldwide as they are excellent sources of high quality nutrients in
the human diet. Human health is related
directly to the environment, and in particular the nature and quality of the
food and with this reason, production of food from animal products should focus
on combination of producing healthy birds with quality meat
and eggs without harmful residues, within a short time interval and at reduced
cost to enhance
effective livelihood of many Nigerians via broiler production. However, the major limitation in the utilization of
leaf meals is traced to be their high fibre contents and
in some cases, presence of toxic factors or metabolic inhibitors such as
saponin, phytate, tannin, oxalate, enzyme inhibitors and alkaloids, as they may
chelate the nutrients and form a biding factor with the food values thereby
making the nutrients non-bioavailable in the system and also may change the blood profiles.
The concentrations of these anti-nutritional factors seem to vary with species
and plant part concerned.
Although,
Moringa oleifera and Azadirachta indica
leaf meals have anti-nutritional factors but the concentrations are found to be
low. They also have bioactive compounds such as carotenoids, phenolic
compounds, flavonoids, azadirone,
promeliacin, limonoids, gedunin, vilasinin, C-secomeliacins, azadirachtin,
nimbin, salanin etc. These compounds exhibit phytogenic additive properties
that can support the digestive enzymes action, improve feed intake, feed
conversion ratio (FCR) and carcass yields in broiler. They also have medicinal
potentials like antibacterial, antiviral, antifungal, antiprotozoal,
hepatoprotective, lymphocyte cells development and anticoccidial effect in
broilers. Therefore the leaf meals will serve as supplements for antibiotics,
antiviral, antifungal, antiprotozoal and anticoccidial to poultry farmers especially those who have
minimal access to veterinary services, those who could not afford to purchase
veterinary drugs and those who did not have knowledge of drug administration.
As the leaves can be found within our environment, it will also reduce cost in
terms of feed cost and cost of inviting veterinary Doctor to farm. This will
also lead to production of quality meat without presence of chemical residues
to entire Nigerians as organic acids are digestible and do not form residuals
in poultry products.
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