ABSTRACT
Two feeding trails was conducted, using 336 day old broiler chicks to determine the response of broiler chickens fed diets supplemented with Lactobacillus plantarum and Enterococcus faecium, at the inclusion rate of 0, 0.05, 0.10 and 0.15 g. The studies lasted for 42 days. Experiment I determined the effect of two probiotic type while Experiment II considered different combinations of L. plantarum and E. faecium probiotics. Experimental design was 2 x 4 factorial in a completely randomized design (CRD) for Experiment I and CRD for Experiment II. Each of the experiments had seven treatments with each treatment replicated three times. Growth and performance, carcass and organ characteristics, haematology, serum biochemistry and feed cost, were measured. In Experiment-I, birds fed with starter broiler diet supplemented with 0.10g of E. faecium had significant (p<0.05) high final live weight (714.67g), daily feed intake (57.27g), daily protein intake (12.15g), high dressed percentage (48.93%), kidney (0.85%), crop (0.97%), small intestine (3.65%), large intestine (0.79%), high pack cell volume (32%), haemoglobin (9.50), red blood cell (5.20) and white blood cell (2.30). Starter diet supplemented with probiotics significantly (p>0.05) reduced urea (28.65), alkaline phosphatase (76.00), aspartate amino transferase (48.33), alanine amino transferase (27.67), cholesterol (48.57), low density lipoprotein (11.78) and the very low density lipoprotein (0.90). Diets supplemented with L. plantarum and E. faecium significantly (p<0.05) improved the final live weight (1876.67g) and daily weight gain (52.35g) of finisher broilers, with significantly low mortality rate (0.24%). The dressed percentage (65.08%), of finisher broilers fed diets supplemented with probiotics were significantly (p<0.05) improved. The haemoglobin (6.97g//dl), RBC (4.03ml/mm3) and WBC (0.44x103/µL) of finisher broilers fed diets containing probiotics were significantly lower than those fed with control diet. The total protein (5.46), was significantly (p<0.05) high, the creatinine (1.28), ALP (72.00), AST (19.33), cholesterol (52.47), LDL (13.09) and VLDLC (5.99) were significantly low. Birds fed diets supplemented with L. plantarum had significant (p<0.05) high total feed cost (₦491.14) and gross margin (₦878.85). In experiment-II, starter broilers dressed percentage (53.97%), crop (1.04), the small (5.37) and large (1.01) intestines, the PVC (32%), RBC (5.48ml/mm3) and WBC (2.10x103/µL) were significantly (p<0.05) high. While the FCR (1.95), cholesterol (81.37), triglyceride (81.37), LDL (4.87) and VLDLC (8.71) were significantly (p>0.05) low. The final live weight (1866.67g) and dressed percentage (62.66%), PVC (47%), RBC (6.85ml/mm3) and WBC (3.19x103/µL) of finisher broilers fed diets supplemented with probiotic combination of L. plantarum and E. faecium at varying inclusion levels were significantly (p<0.05) high. While the urea (19.37), creatine (1.01), AST (26.67), cholesterol (46.56), LDL (7.67) and VLDLC (23.74) were significantly (p>0.05) low, the feed cost (₦516.86) and gross margin (₦901.44) were significantly (p<0.05) high. Probiotics (L. plantarum and E. faecium) had positive impact on the growth performance, carcass and organ characteristics, haematology and serum biochemistry of broiler chickens.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title
page i
Declaration ii
Certification iii
Dedication iv
Acknowledgement v
Table
of contents vi
List
of tables x
List
of figures xiv
Abstract xv
1.0 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
o Background Information 1
o Statement of Problem 2
1.3 Objectives 3
1.4
Justification 4
2.0 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Probiotics 6
2.2
Probiotics Micro-organisms 7
2.3
History of Probiotics 8
2.4
Good Probiotics and their Benefits 9
2.5
Principles in Selecting Probiotic Strain for Animals 11
2.6
Probiotic Mode of Actions 13
2.6.1
Therapeutic action of probiotics in animals 14
2.7.0 Classification
of probiotics 15
2.7.1 The
yeasts 15
2.7.2 The
bacillus spores 15
2.7.3 The
lactic acid bacteria 16
2.7.3.1 Lactobacillus
species 17
2.7.3.2 Specific
roles of lactobacillus spp in animal
nutrition 18
2.7.3.3 Lactobacillus plantarum 19
2.7.4 Enterococcus species 20
2.8 Rationale for Combination of two or
more Probiotic Strain or Species 20
2.9 Application
of Probiotics in Animal Nutrition 22
2.9.1 Effect
of probiotics on laying hens 22
2.9.2 Effects
of probiotics on broiler performance 23
3.0 CHAPTER 3: MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1
Experimental Site 25
3.2 Source
of Probiotics 25
3.3
Birds and their Management 25
3.4
Experiment – I 26
3.4.1 Experimental diet 28
3.4.2 Experimental design and data collection 28
3.4.3 Chemical and data analysis 30
3.5 Experiment – II 30
3.5.1 Experimental diet 31
3.5.2 Experimental design and data collection 32
3.5.3 Chemical and data analysis 32
4.0 CHAPTER
4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.2.1 Growth and Performance 85
4.2.2 Carcass and organ yield 88
4.2.3 Internal organs 89
4.2.4 Haematology 89
4.2.5 Serum
Biochemistry 90
4.2.6 Feed
cost 92
5.0 CHAPTER 5
5.1 Summary 93
5.2 Conclusion 94
5.3 Recommendation 94
References 95
LIST OF TABLES
3.1 Percentage composition of diets 27
4.1 Nutrient proximate composition of diet 32
4.2 Effect of type of probiotic on growth and
performance of starter broilers 33
4.3 Effect of inclusion level of probiotics
on starter broiler 34
4.4 Effect of
interaction between type of probiotics and inclusion level on the
performance of
starter broiler chickens. 35
4.5 Effect of type of probiotic on the
carcass yield of starter broilers 36
4.6 Effect of inclusion level of probiotics
on the carcass of starter broiler 37
4.7 Effect of
interaction between type of probiotics and inclusion level on the
carcass of
starter broilers. 39
4.8 Effect of type of probiotic on growth and
performance of starter broilers 40
4.9 Effect of inclusion level of probiotics
on the organs of starter broiler 41
4.10 Effect of
interaction between type of probiotics and inclusion level on the
organs of
starter broilers. 43
4.11 Effect of type of probiotic on the
haematology of starter broilers 44
4.12 Effect of inclusion level of probiotics on
the haematology of starter broiler 45
4.13 Effect of
interaction between type of probiotics and inclusion level on the
haematology of
starter broilers. 46
4.14 Effect of type of probiotic on the serum
profile of starter broilers 47
4.15 Effect of inclusion level of probiotics on
the serum of starter broilers 49
4.16 Effect of
interaction between type of probiotics and inclusion level on
the serum
profile of starter broilers. 51
4.17 effect of type of probiotic on the growth
and performance of finisher
broilers 52
4.18 Effect of inclusion level of probiotics on
the performance of finisher
broilers 53
4.19 Effect of
interaction between type of probiotics and inclusion level
on the
performance of finisher broilers. 55
4.20 Effect of type of probiotic on the carcass
yield of finisher broilers 56
4.21 Effect of inclusion level of probiotics on
the carcass of finisher broilers 57
4.22 Effect of
interaction between type of probiotics and inclusion level on the
carcass of
finisher broilers. 59
4.23 Effect of type of probiotic on the internal
organs of finisher broilers 60
4.24 Effect of inclusion level of probiotics on
the organs of finisher broilers 62
4.25 Effect of
interaction between type of probiotics and inclusion level on the
organs of
finisher broilers. 64
4.26 Effect of type of probiotic on the
haematology of finisher broilers 65
4.27 Effect of inclusion level of probiotics on
the haematology of finisher
broilers 66
4.28 Effect of
interaction between type of probiotics and inclusion level
on the
haematology of finisher broilers. 67
4.29 Effect of type of probiotic on the serum
profile of finisher broilers 69
4.30 Effect of inclusion level of probiotics on
the serum profile of finisher
broilers 70
4.31 Effect of
interaction between type of probiotics and inclusion level on the
serum profile of
finisher broilers. 72
4.32 Feed cost of broiler
chickens fed diet supplemented with probiotics. 73
4.33 Growth
and performance of starter broilers fed diet supplemented with
probiotics. 74
4.34 Carcass
yield of starter broilers fed probiotic supplemented diet. 75
4.35 Internal organs of starter broilers fed
diet supplemented with probiotic. 76
4.36 Haematology
of starter broilers fed diet supplemented with probiotics 77
4.37 Serum
biochemistry of starter broilers fed diet supplemented with
probiotics. 78
4.38 Growth and performance of finisher
broilers fed diet supplemented with
probiotics 79
4.39 Carcass yield of finisher broilers fed probiotic supplemented
diets. 80
4.40 Internal
organs of finisher broilers fed diet supplemented
with probiotics. 81
4.41 Haematology of finisher broilers fed
probiotic supplemented diet. 82
4.42 Serum
profile of finisher broilers fed diet supplemented with probiotics. 83
4.43 Feed cost of broiler chickens fed diet
supplemented with probiotics. 84
LIST OF FIGURES
2.1 Schematic representation of probiotic
concept 9
2.2 Diagram for probiotic selection in the
poultry industry 14
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Feed additives, improves the health,
nutrition and general performance of animals. Feed is always a major expense in
animal production and must be utilized as efficient as possible, ensuring the
optimization of nutrient uptake, giving the best values. Feed additives are
materials administered to animals mainly through feed to enhance the
effectiveness of nutrients, which exert their effects in the gut or on the gut
wall cells (McDonald et al., 2011).
Primarily, feed additives include: antibiotics, prebiotics, probiotics,
enzymes, organic acids, spray-dried plasma, phytogenics and modifiers of rumen
fermentation.
Probiotics
are cultures of beneficial bacteria from the healthy gut microflora that
improve the balance of the intestinal milieu by modifying the intestinal
microflora and suppressing enhanced inflammatory responses (Simmering and
Blaut, 2001).
Probiotics, or direct fed microbials,
are naturally occurring live microbes added to feed to improve the gut flora
(Fuller, 1989; Heyman and Ménard, 2002 and Biradar et al., 2004) of pigs, poultry and other animals. According
to the definition by FAO/WHO (2001),
probiotics are live microorganisms which when administered in adequate amounts
confer a health benefit on the host. Beneficial micro-organisms displace
pathogenic micro-organisms and produce enzymes that complement the digestive
ability of the host (McDonald et al.,
2011). They
are made-up of individual species or mixtures of lactic acid bacteria (LAB),
yeasts or their end products which can have positive influence on digestion and
the immune system (Anukam and Reid, 2008). Examples include Lactobacillus spp., Enterococcus spp., Bifidobacterium
spp., Streptococcus spp., Lactococcus spp. among others (Hayashi et al., 2005;
McDonald et al., 2011).
The
mechanisms or mode of action of direct fed microbials (DFM) like probiotics,
includes competitive exclusion (Fuller, 1989; Sissons, 1989; Bomba et al., 2002), aggregation of probiotics
and pathogenic bacteria (Jiri and Christophe, 2015), reduced production of
toxic amines (Broz and Paulus, 2015), nutrient synthesis and
balancing of the intestinal pH (Bomba et
al., 2002; Guerra et al., 1997
and Jiri and Christophe, 2015), nutrient absorption (Zhu, 2011), improves the
intestinal immune system (Broz and Paulus, 2015) and total inhibition of
pathogen’s growth (Bomba et al.,
2002; Guerra et al., 1997; Mantere,
1995; Marinho et al., 2007).
1.2
STATEMENT OF PROBLEM
There
is an increasing concern for the public health about the consequences of the
long and increased use of antibiotics in livestock production. Thus,
consideration must be given to the aftermath effects of its indiscriminate use
which include antibiotic resistance, resulting from the ability of bacterial
population to survive the effect of inhibitory concentration of antimicrobial
agents (Catry et al., 2003) and
accumulation of antibiotic residues in tissues of poultry birds that upon
consumption poses risk to human health.
The use of antibiotics in animal
feed as growth promoters has been completely banned by the European Union and
most developed countries since 2006, based on their possible negative effects
on human and animal health (EC Regulation No. 1831/2003; Vasileios et al., 2014).The removal of antibiotic
growth promoters has led to animal performance problems and a rise in the
incidence of certain animal diseases (Casewell et al., 2003 and WHO, 2002).
Animal
production in recent days has been trapped between consumer’s concern on
animal, increasing demand for animal products and concerns on risks for public
health (Papatsiros et al., 2012). There
is also, increasing public awareness about the risk of developing
cross-resistance of pathogens to antibiotics (Mathew et al., 2007; Hunter et al.,
2010). The
total ban of antibiotic growth promoters in animal feed by most developed
countries due to increased concern about the potentials for developing
antibiotic resistant strains of bacteria within the food chain (Doyle, 2001),
has led to an increased development and research on alternatives to antibiotics
for use as feed additives in animal production. Most alternatives to
antibiotics are inconsistent in their mode of action. This, calls for more
research into safe and eco-friendly alternatives, which may include careful
combination of different types and strains of probiotics like L. plantarum and E. faecium.
1.3 OBJECTIVES
The broad objective of the study was
to determine the response of broiler chickens fed diets supplemented with Lactobacillus plantarum and Enterococcus faecium as probiotics. The
specific objectives were to determine the:
a. Growth performance of broiler
chickens fed diets supplemented with L.
plantarum and E. faecium.
b. Carcass characteristics of broilers
fed diets supplemented with L. plantarum
and E. faecium.
c. Hematology and serum biochemical
composition of broiler chickens fed diets supplemented with L. plantarum and E. faecium.
d. Feed cost of broiler chickens fed
diets supplemented with L. plantarum
and E. faecium.
1.4 JUSTIFICATION
With rising feed costs, animal
producers and feed mills are looking for ways to optimize performance and
increase the digestibility of nutrients. Brötel (2015) stated that probiotics
helped farmers to make profit while at the same time reduce nutrient emission
into the environment. Improved digestibility increases feed conversion ratio
(FCR), resulting in reduction of feed cost to 4% (Brötel, 2015). Duncan et al. (2004) reported that lactic acid
produced in vitro by lactic acid
bacteria is used strictly by anaerobic butyrate producing bacteria of clostridial clusters IV and XIV for the
production of large concentrations of butyric acid. This cross-feeding
mechanism suggested that administration of lactic acid bacteria to farm animals
has beneficial effect on performance. The intestinal microbiota has a specific
multi-factorial ‘barrier’ impact, such as: induction of anatomical and
physiological changes in the intestinal cell wall structure, immunological
modifications in the gut and enhancement of the bird’s resistance to
entero-pathogenic bacteria, such as C.
perfringens (La Ragione et al.,
2004; Hofacre et al., 1998; Ng et al., 2009).
Delia
et al. (2012) outlined the beneficial
effect probiotics to include resistance to infectious diseases, increased
growth rate, improved feed conversion, improved digestion, better nutrient
absorption, provision of essential nutrients, increased egg production,
improved egg quality, and improved carcass quality and less contamination. Samli et al.(2007) observed that supplementation of E. faecium in a broiler diet increased the population of lactic
acid bacteria in broiler droppings and increased villus height in the ileum,
thereby enhancing broiler’s performance with respect to weight gain and feed
conversion ratio. The inclusion of L.
plantarum, L. acidophilus and E.
faecium at 1%, 3% and 5% of a broiler diet significantly improved the amino
acid level of the breast and leg muscles but with more difference in the leg
(Abdulwahab and Horniakova, 2013). Saurabh et
al, (2013) observed that at low inclusion level, E. faecium acts effectively as a probiotics with negative
correlation in biological performance at high inclusion levels.
Combination of L. plantarum and E. faecium
in broiler diets is expected to synergize to enhance better nutrient
utilization, feed efficiency, weight gain, healthy gut and immunity with very
low pathogenic bacteria population and low serum lipid profile. Therefore,
there is need to determine probiotic strain combination and the inclusion level
that will enhance the performance of broiler chickens in the humid tropics.
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