EVALUATION OF SOME SIDE EFFECTS OF PRAZIQUANTEL ADMINISTRATION ON SCHISTOSOMIASIS AMONG KUDAI YAMMA PRIMARY SCHOOL PUPILS IN DUTSE, JIGAWA STATE

ABSTRACT

As part of the national effort to control schistosomiasis, the Jigawa State Ministry of Heath embarked on health education campaign and provision of chemotherapy to school aged children in 2009 and 2013. Therefore, a study was conducted to assess some side effect of praziquentel administration on schistosomiasis among pupils in kudaiyamma, Dutse metropolis. A cross sectional study design involving 80 school pupils, aged 9-15years, was conducted in kudai primary schools in Dutse, Metropolis in 2022. The urine samples were examined using the sedimentation method for the presence of Schistosomahaematobium eggs. Demographic and associated risk factors information was collected through a structured medical report form and was subjected to Epi Info software version 7.2 to test for the significant association of the prevalence. The overall prevalence for schistosomiasis was 10.67% out of 80 pupils examined, with 8.0% and 2.67% infected withS. haematobium respectively at P>0.283. males had higher prevalence rate of 53.73% for S. haematobium  respectively than females with prevalence of 46.25%. The difference was found to be statistically significant at P> 0.283. The age group between 9-11years recorded the highest prevalence rate of 37.5% while the least prevalence rate of and 30% was observed in the 13-15 age groups and no significant difference in prevalence observed at P> 0.283. With regards to water contact activities, higher prevalence rate was observed in children that uses borehole a  source of water 21.25% respectively than children that uses irrigation and Wells with infection rate of 12.5% and 17.5% fetches  and there was no significant difference observed (P> 0.283). From the results obtained, it is concluded that the area is still endemic for urinary Schistosomiasis. However, there was a drop in the prevalence from 35% before chemotherapy to 6.25% reported in this study. Health Education programmes should be organized in schools to enlighten the children on the causes and mode of transmission of the disease.

TABLE OF CONTENT

Contents                                                                                                page

Cover Page ...........................................................................................................i

Title Page………………………………………...........................................ii

Declaration ………………………………………………………..........................iii

Certification ………………………………………………………................................iv

Dedication……………………………………………………………….............................v

Acknowledgements………………………………………………………….…………….vi

Abstract ...............................................................................................................vii

Table of Content ......................................................................................viii-x

List of Tables  ...................................................................................................xi

List of Figures  ........................................................................xii

List of plates………………………………………………………………..…xiii

CHAPTER ONE ...............................................................................................1    

1.0      Introduction..............................................................................................1

1.1     Statement of research problem ………..............................................2

1.2.     Significance of the study................................................................... 2

1.3      Aim and objectives............................................................ 3

1.3.1   Aim.........................................................................................3

1.3.2 Objectives.......................................................................................... 3

1.4   Research hypotheses..........................................................................3

1.5 Scope and limitations.........................................................................3

CHAPTER TWO.................................................................................. 4

   2.0     Literature review...........................................................................4 

   2.1      History of schistosome.......................................................................4

   2.2      Classification of schistosome...................................................... 5

   2.3      General morphology of schistosome................................................................................................6

   2.4     lifecycle........................................................................................................................................8-10

   2.5      Epidemiology.................................................................................................................................12

   2.6      Geographical distribution...................................................................12

   2.7       Mode of transmission................................................................................................................... 13

   2.8       Prevalence...................................................................................................................................  13

   2.9       Pathogenesis..................................................................................................................................14

  2.9.1     Pathology associated with Adult worm........................................................................................14

 2.9.2       Pathology associated with schistosomal egg........................15-16

 2.10        Socio- economic Burden..........................................................16-17

 2.11        Diagnosis of schistosomiasis.......................................................18

 2.12        Symptoms.................................................................................................................................. 19

 2.13        Treatment.....................................................................................................................................20

 2.14         Control........................................................................................................................................20

 2.14.1      Control through the intermediate host........................................................................................21

2.15          Prevention..................................................................................................................................23

2.16          Eradication................................................................................................................................. 24

CHAPTER THREE...................................................................................................................................25

   3.0 Materials and method.........................................................................................................................25

   3.1 Description of the Study area..............................................................................................................25

3.1.1 Dutse community.............................................................................................................................25

   3. 2  Study design......................................................................................................................................26

   3.2.1 Map of the study area.......................................................................................................................27

   3.3   Sample size determination................................................................................................................28

   3.4   Statistical Analysis............................................................................................................................28

   3.5    Ethical clearance..............................................................................................................................28

   3.6    Development and Administration of Questionnaire........................................................................29

3.7     Population and sample size technique...............................................................................................29

3.8 Sample collection..................................................................................................................................29

3.9    Laboratory analysis of urine...............................................................................................................29

3.9.1 Macroscopic examination of the urine samples.................................................................................29

3.9.2 Microscopic examination...................................................................................................................30

3.9.2.1 Filteration Techniques....................................................................................................................30

CHAPTER FOUR...................................................................................................................................31

4.0 Results and Discussion...........................................................................................................................32

4.1. Results...................................................................................................................................................32

TABLE   4.1.................................................................................................................................................32

TABLE   4.2.................................................................................................................................................34

TABLE   4.3.................................................................................................................................................36

PLATE  1………………………………………………………………………………………………….37

 4.2 Discussion........................................................................................................................................38-40

CHAPTER FIVE.................................................................................................................................41

5.0 Conclusion and recommendations.........................................................................................................41

5.1 Conclusion.............................................................................................................................................41

5.2 Recommendations..................................................................................................................................41

REFERENCE........................................................................................................................................42-48

LIST OF TABLES

Table 4.1 Age  And  Gender Prevalence Of  Schistosomiasis  Among Pupils…………………………..………………32

Table 4.2 Prevalence Of Schistosomiasis  Base On Source Of Water………………………………………………………34

Table 4.3 Some Side Effects Of Praziquantel  Tablet On Pupils……………………………………………………………….36

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.  Morphology of Schistosome…………………………………………………………………………………………………….7

Figure 2. Lifecycle Of Schistosome ……………………………………………………………………………………….…….…………11

Figure 3. Praziquantel  Drugs ………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………….22

Figure 4. Map Of  Study Area ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..27

LIST OF PLATES

Plate 1. Egg Of SchistosomaHaematobium  Under X40 Objectives  Lens…………………………………….…………37

CHAPTER ONE

 1.0   INTRODUCTION

 1.0.1 SCHISTOSOMA

 Schistosomiasis or bilharziasis is a parasitic disease caused by flukes (trematodes) of the genus Schistosoma. It is most prevalent neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) after malaria and intestinal helminthiasis (Sturrock, 2001). Schistosomiasis is the third most devastating tropical disease in the world, being a major public health problem in many developing countries in Africa, South America, the Middle East, with Nigeria having the greatest number of cases of schistosomiasis worldwide, with about 29 million infected cases (Hotez and Kamth 2009), and about 101 million people are at risk of infection (Steinman et al, 2006). More than 207 million people, 80% of who live in Africa are infected with schistosomiasis (WHO, 2010). An estimated of 700 million people are at risk of infection in 76 contries where the disease is considered endemic (WHO, 2010), as their agricultural work, domestic chores and recreational activities expose them to infected water. Globally 200,000 deaths are attributed to schistosomiasis annually (Chistulo et al, 2004). The five species of schistosoma that causes the disease worldwide include S. haematobium, S. mansoni, S. japonicum, S. intercalatum, and S. mekongi (Wetsteyn et al., 2005). Each species has a well defined distribution which is important in diagnosis. Among which three species S. haematobium, S. japonicum and S. mansoni account for greater percent (95%) of all human cases of schistosomiasis found in the world (Mutapi et al, 2003). In Nigeria, two species are pathogenic to man these are S. haematobium and S. mansoni. According to (Stothard et al., 2013) and (Meltzer et al, 2006). the disease caused by S. haematobium is characterized by bloody urine, calcification of bladder, and kidney failure and bladder cancer in children. And it is the major cause of female genital schistosomiasis (FGS). Schistosomiasis prevalence and morbidity is highest among school children, adolescent and majority of the federation, particularly in the Southern states. This makes intervention and control measures more difficult as such information is crucial to identify and implement effective control measures. Considering this context, the present study has aimed to investigate the method of dediction of nitrate bacteria in urine of urinary schistosomiasis using the Kato Katz technique and sedimentation method in Dutse Local Government of Jigawa state.

1.1  STATEMENT OF THE RESEACHE PROBLEM

Schistosomiasis is the third most devastating tropical disease in the world, being a major public health problem in many developing countries in Africa, South America, the Middle East, with Nigeria having the greatest number of cases of schistosomiasis worldwide, with about 29 million infected cases (Hotez and Kamth 2009), and about 101 million people are at risk of infection (Steinman et al., 2006).

Chronic infection with schistosomiasis can cause malnutrition and Iron deficiency anaemia, and can also adversely affect physical and mental growth in childhood. Urogenital schistosomiasis, caused by S. haematobium is characterized by haematuria, dysuria, bladder wall pathology, hydronephrosis and it can also lead to squamous cell carcinoma in schistosomiasis, the Jigawa State Ministry of Health embarked on chemotherapy on children in 2009 to 2013 as well as enlightenment campaign to stop transmission. There was no assessment done on the control effort, therefore this research is attempt to do so.

1.2 JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY

This result will provide information of some side effects of praziquantel administration on schistosomiasis infection among infected pupils that will indicate the success or otherwise of the 2009 and 2013 chemotherapy in interrupting transmission in the study area. This is useful in continuous planning and executing control program.

1.3. AIM AND OBJECTIVES

1.3.1 AIM

The aim of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of some side effects of praziquantel administration in the treatment of schistosomiasis infection among Kudai Yamma  Primary School Pupils in Dutse, Jigawa state.

1.3.2 OBJECTIVES;

The specific objectives of this study are to determine;

I.  Prevalence and risk factors associated with Schistosomiasis infection among pupils.

ii.  Some side effects of praziquantel administration among school aged children (6-15) years in Kudai Yamma  Primary School Pupils in Dutse, Jigawa state.

1.4 RESARCH  HYPHOTHESES

i. Schistosomiasis infection among Kudai Yamma Primary School pupils (6-15) years in Dutse Metropolis in pre and post chemotherapy.

1.5 SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS

This research was restricted to only Kudai Yamma Primary school in Dutse, Jigawa State. Due to time constraint and inadequate financial support.

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