ABSTRACT
Phytochemical and medicinal potentials of Bitter cola (Garcinia kola), Alligator pepper (Aframomum melegueta) and Country onion (Afrostyrax lepidophyllus) was determine to test the nutritional composition, anti-nutritional properties and pathogenic organisms. Laboratory procedures were carried out at National Root Crop Research institute in Umudike, Abia State. The result obtained were analyzed using Analysis of variance (ANOVA), descriptive statistics, regression analysis and means were separated using least significant difference (LSD). The treatments used for this study were non-roasted and roasted of Garcinia Kola, Aframomum melegueta, and Afrostyrax lepidphyllus extracts. Non-roasted and roasted extracts, showed the presence of bioactive constituents. The result of bitter cola in non-roasted samples showed the highest carbohydrate (CHO) at 86.36%, dry matter 91.93% and alligator pepper had the highest ash, 4.57% crude fibre was 5.56%, ether extract 4.28%, crude protein was 7.64%. In roasted samples, CHO was the highest (87.60%) followed by alligator pepper (70.69%). The mineral contents of non roasted extracts of Aframomum melegueta and Afrostyrax lepidphyllus showed high level of Calcium (134.73mg/100g), Phosphorous (38.72mg/100g), Magnesium (69.68mg/100g), Potassium (43.75mg/100g), and Sodium (108.66mg/100g). The results of roasted and non- roasted seeds extracts of alligator pepper and bitter cola had the highest Fe (2.18) and Zn (0.84mg), The results of vitamin showed that Country onion and alligator pepper had great amount of Vitamin A (3.86mg/100g), VitaminB1(0.07mg/100g), VitaminB2(0.05mg/100g) Vitamin B3 (0.04 mg/100g) Vitamin C (4.75mg/100g) and Vitamin E, (3.13 mg/100g). The phytochemicals result showed the high level of flavonoid (2.41%), alkaloid (1.47%), Tannin (1.32%) Cyanogenic glycosides (1.41%) saponin (1.18%), phenol (0.27%) and sterol (0.35%) in alligator pepper seed. In microbial and antimicrobial analysis, control treatment (ciprofloxacin and fungabater) had the highest inhibition in both roasted and non-roasted sample in all the level (100mg/ml, 150mg/ml and 200mg/ml), followed by alligator pepper. While country onion and bitter cola was the least inhibition at all level.
TABLE
OF CONTENTS
Cover page
i
Title page
ii
Certification iii
Declaration
iv
Dedication v
Acknowledgement
vi
Table of contents
vii
List of Tables
xi
List of plates
xiii
List of Acronyms
xiv
List of Appendix
xv
Abstract
xvi
CHAPTER
1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of
the Study
1
1.2 Statement of
the Problems
2
1.3 Objectives of the Study
3
1.4 Justification
3
1.5 Scope
4
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Historical
Perspective
5
2.1.1 Economic value
and growth of NTFPs
5
2.1.2 Importance of
NTFPs to livelihood security 7
2.1.3. Constraints
facing the NTFPs sector
8
2.1.4 Morphological characteristics, ecological
distribution
and utilization of Alligator pepper
(Aframomum melegueta) 9
2.1.6 Morphological
characteristic, ecological distribution and utilization of Garcinia kola (Bitter cola)
10
2.1.7
Morphological characteristics, ecological distribution and utilization
of Afrostyrax
lepidophyllus (Country onion)
12
2.1.8 Spices
13
2.1.9 Medicinal plants
15
2.2 Importance
of Medicinal Plants
16
2.2.1 Economic
value of some medicinal plants 16
2.2.2 Industrial value of medicinal plants
17
2.2.3 Antimicrobial
mode of action of medicinal plants 20
2.2.4 Therapeutic
benefit of plant antimicrobials 21
2.2.5 Bioactive
constituents of medicinal plants 22
2.2.6 Nutritional
value of plants
25
CHAPTER 3:
MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1 Study Area
27
3.2
Sample Collection and
Preparation 27
3.3 Laboratory Analysis 34
3.4 Proximate Analysis
35
3.4.1
Determination of moisture
content
35
3.4.2 Determination
of total ash
35
3.4.3 Determination
of crude fiber
36
3.4.4 Determination
of crude protein 37
3.45 Determination of fat content (Ether extract)
37
3.4.5 Determination
of carbohydrates 38
3.5 Phytochemical
Analysis
39
3.5.1 Determination
of alkaloids
39
3.5.2 Determination
of saponin
39
3.5.3 Determination
of tannins
39
3.5.4 Determination
of steroid
41
3.5.5 Hydrogen
cynaide determination
41
3.5.6 Determination
of flavonoid 42
3.5.7 Determination
of phenol
42
3.6 Determination
of Vitamins
43
3.6.1 Vitamin A (retinol) determination
43
3.6.2 Determination
of thiamine (B1) 43
3.6.3 Determination
of riboflavin (B2)
44
3.6.4 Determination
of niacin (B3)
45
3.6.5 Vitamin
C (ascorbic acid) determination 46
3.6.6
Vitamin E (tocopherol) determination 46
3.7 Determination
of Minerals
47
3.7.1 Determination
of calcium
48
3.7.2
Determination of phosphorous
48
3.7.3 Determination
of potassium
49
3.8. Microbial
Analysis
50
3.9
Data Analysis
51
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Proximate Analysis Non-Roasted Extracts 52
4.2 Proximate
Analysis of Roasted Extracts 53
4.3 Mineral
Contents (macro nutrient) of Non-Roasted Extracts 55
4.4
Mineral Contents (macro nutrient) Roasted
Extracts 56
4.5 Mineral
Contents (micro nutrients) Non-Roasted Extracts 57
4.6 Mineral
Contents (micro nutrients) Roasted Extracts 58
4.7
Vitamins Contents of Roasted Extracts
59
4.8 Vitamins
Contents on Roasted Extracts
60
4.9 Anti nutritional Contents Non-Roasted Extracts 61
4.10 Anti nutritional Contents Roasted Extracts
62
4.11 Bacterial
Growth Inhibition Test of Non-Roasted Extracts
at 100mg/ml 63
4.12 Bacterial
Growth Inhibition Test of Roasted Extracts at100mg/ml 64
4.13 Bacterial
Growth Inhibition Test of Non-roasted Extracts at 150mg/ml 65
4.14
Bacterial Growth Inhibition Test
of Roasted Extracts at 150mg/ml
66
4.15 Bacterial
Growth Inhibition Test of Non Roasted Extracts at 200mg/ml
67
4.16 Bacterial
Growth Inhibition Test of Roasted Extracts at 200mg/ml 68
4.22
Fungi Test Inhibition of Roasted at
200mg/ml 74
4.3 Discussion
75
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION
AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1 Summary
79
5.2 Conclusion
79
5.3 Recommendations
79
References 80
LIST OF TABLES
4.1: Proximate
analysis of non-roasted extracts of Bitter cola,
Alligator pepper and Country
onion 53
4.2: Proximate composition analysis of Bitter
cola, Alligator pepper
and
Country onion, roasted extracts -
54
1.3
Mineral content analysis (macro nutrient)
of non-roasted plant
Bitter cola, Alligator pepper,
and Country onion extracts 55
4.4 Mineral content analysis (macro nutrient)
of Roasted extracts
Bitter
cola. Alligator pepper and Country onion extracts 56
4.5
Heavy metal analysis of
non-roasted extracts 57
4.6 Heavy
metal analysis of roasted extracts 58
4.7: Vitamins
variation in non-roasted extracts 59
4.8
Vitamins variation of roasted
plant extracts 60
4.9 Anti-nutritional
contents of non-roasted extract 61
4.10 Anti-nutritional contents of roasted
extracts 62
4.11
Bacterial growth inhibition test
of non-roasted extracts at100mg/ml 63
4.12 Bacterial growth inhibition test of
roasted samples extracts at 100mg/ml
64
4.13 Bacterial
growth inhibition test of non-roasted extracts at 150mg/ml 65
4.14 Bacteria growth inhibition test of roasted extracts at 150mg/ml 66
4.15 Bacterial
growth inhibition test of non-roasted extracts at 200mg/ml 67
4.16 Bacterial
growth inhibition test of roasted extracts at 200mg/ml 68
4.20
Fungi test inhibition of roasted
extracts at 150 mg/ml 72
4.21 Fungi
test inhibition of non-roasted extracts at 200 mg/ml 73
4.22 Fungi
test inhibition of roasted extracts at 200 mg/ml 74
LIST
OF PLATES
1: Seeds of Aframomum melegueta (alligator pepper) 28
2: Seeds of Afrostyrax lepidophyllus (country onion) 29 3: Seeds
of Garcinia kola (Bitter cola) big
size
30
4: Measuring of raw and roasted extracts of
bitter cola and alligator Pepper 30
5: Weighing of raw and roasted extracts of bitter cola and
alligator Pepper 31
6: Ash
sample of country onion after heating 31
7: Digestive method to determined mineral
contents 32
8: Spectrometric
analysis of mineral contents of dry and raw extracts 32
9: Antimicrobial and microbial inoculation of
bitter cola,
alligator pepper and country onion 33
10: Microbial
growth 34
LIST OF ACRONYMS
WHO: World Health Organization
NTFPs: Non-Timber Forest Products
ISO: International Organization for
Standardization
AOAC: Association of Analytical
Communities
CHAPTER
1
Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs)
are the wide range of both fauna and flora species that are produced by forests
and wood lands, and which are available to humans for use other than commercial
timber (Sunderland et al., 2005).
NTFPs generally, include the numerous forest extracts such as leaves, fruits,
flowers, seeds, bark of a tree, resins, roots, tubers, honey bee products
(honey, pollen, propolis etc.) as well as medicinal plants, oils and mushrooms.
They also include spices, fodder, rattan, bamboo, edible oils, and ornamental
plants. Furthermore, fish, aquatic invertebrates, insects, and insect’s
products and wildlife products may also be listed among NTFPs (Dohrenbusch,
2006). Great numbers of NTFPs in Nigeria are traditionally noted for their
pesticide and medicinal properties (Okwu, 2003). It is generally accepted that
vegetable and fruits have some medicinal properties. There is considerable
amount of epidemiological evidence revealing an association between those who
have a diet rich in fresh fruit and vegetables experience decrease risk of
cardiovascular diseases and certain forms of cancer (Ngalim, 2011). Some plants exhibit a wide range of biological and
pharmacological activities such as anti-inflammatory, anti-bacterial and
anti-fungal properties. Extracts from the roots, barks, seeds, and fruits of
most plants are used in the preparation of syrups and infusions in traditional
medicine as cough suppressant and in the treatment of liver cirrhosis and
hepatitis (Ogu and Agu 1995). The active constituents contributing to these
protective effects are the phytochemicals, vitamins and minerals present in the
plants. Phytochemicals are non-nutritive plant chemicals that have protective
properties and are natural bioactive compounds found in plant, leaves or other
parts of plants that interplay with nutrients. According to Iwu, (1999) phytochemicals
are present in a variety of plants (including fruits, seeds, herbs and
vegetables) consumed by both human and animal’s in their diets. Diets
containing abundance of fruits and vegetables are very protective against a
variety of diseases. Spices and herbs are harmless sources of obtaining natural
antioxidants (Iwu, 1999).
According to Tavares et al., (2008) the
use of plant materials traditionally as food preservatives, food spices, condiments
or as medicine, are more beneficial to human health than the use of synthetic
chemical as food preservatives.
In many tropical countries, these
medicinal plants and spices are available and are easily accessible (Chintamunnee and
Mahomoodally, 2012). In Nigeria, it has been estimated
that over 40% of known plants serve as food whereas about 30% serve as spices
and medicinal plants (Nwobegu, 2002). Spices are added to food because of its
aroma and flavour and at the same time they serve as food preservatives since
they possess active ingredients such as microbistatic or microbicidal (Adegoke
and Sagua, 2000; Okeke et al., 2001;
Okigbo et al., 2005, 2006; Okigbo and
Igwe, 2007).
One of the plants species
used as spices is Tetrapleura tetraptera, known as “uyayak” (Efik), “ushakirisha/oshosho” (Igbo), “aridan” (Yoruba), “ighimiaka” (Edo)
and “oghokiriaho” (“Urogbo”), ‘ikoho” (Nupe). It belongs to the family leguminosae,. It is one of the most valued forest products in
Nigeria but is threatened by extinction as a result of deforestation (Akachuku, 1997). It adds good aroma
and flavour to delicacy. Some medicinal plants
selected for these researches are; Bitter cola (Garcinia kola), Alligator pepper (Aframomum melegueta) and Country onion (Afrostyrax lepidophyllus). These are traditional plants which are often
eaten as snacks largely among the elderly people in Nigeria (Okigbo and Igwe,
2007).
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEMS
In Nigeria,
indigenous people traditionally use Bitter cola (Garcinia kola), Aframomum
melegueta (Alligator pepper) and Afrostyrax lepidopyllus (Country onion) to maintain their health. These plants
species have enormous reservoir of many secondary metabolites functions and
nutrient elements which exhibit high medicinal and nutritional properties (Okwu
et al., 2003). Considering the
importance of these plants species which are commonly used as spice and herbal
medicine, it is necessary to investigate their properties in order to promote
their utilization and conservation.
1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The
general objectives of this study were to determine the phytochemical and
medicinal values of Bitter cola (Garcinia
kola), Alligator pepper (Aframomum
melegueta) and Country onion (Afrostyrax
lepidophyllus).
The specific objectives were to determine
the:
i. Nutritional composition of the
species
ii. Anti-nutritional properties of
the species
iii. Effect of each sample extracts
on some pathogenic organisms.
1.4
JUSTIFICATION
Bitter cola, alligator pepper and country
onion are some of the plant species that have been used for years and are still
being used for the treatment of different illnesses (Rajesh, 2006). However, information on their physicochemical
composition are scanty. Their full potential has not been studied. It is
anticipated that the result of this study will offer a great deal of
encouragement to the public especially the food industry on the utilization of
these species as antimicrobial substance to replace chemical preservation in
order to achieve a higher degree of retention of overall food quality. It will
reveal the level which should be used as an alternative medicine by the herbal
medicine practitioners. It will also be useful in pharmaceutical preparations.
1.5 SCOPE
This
study examined the physicochemical and the medicinal characteristics of three NTFPs
in Uyo Local Government Area, Akwa Ibom State Nigeria. Bitter cola (Garcinia kola), Alligator pepper (Aframomum melegueta) and Country onion (Afrostyrax lepidophyllus). The analysis
done was proximate analysis, phytochemical analysis, microbial and
antimicrobial analysis.
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