MEDICINAL IMPLICATION AND PHYTOCHEMICAL STUDIES OF PLUKENETIA CONOPHORA, IRVINGIA GABONENSIS, AFRAMOMUM MELEGUETA, COLA PARCHYCARPA.

ABSTRACT

This study involved the isolation, purification and characterisation of the phytochemicals from plukenetia conophora, irvingia gabonensis, aframomum melegueta, and cola parchycarpa, the determination of its medicinal importance. Further extractions were carried out using ethyl acetate, ethanol, methanol and water. Analysis reveals the presence of bioactive compound from the photochemical screening. Subsequent quantification of these wild fruits reveals that alkaloid, saponins, tannins, phenol, flavonoid, and carotene are present. Phytochemical screening revealed the presence of all selected phytochemicals in all the selected wild fruit except in aframomum melegueta where catotenoid was not detected. The phytochemical composition of the selected wild fruits, plukenetia conophora had 42.3mg/100g alkaloid, 2.14mg/100g flavonoid, 0.93 mg/100g tannins, 96.2mg/100g saponins, 17.8mg/100g phenol and 11.4mg carotenoid, irvivgia gabonensis had 49.6mg/100g alkaloid, 139.3mg/100g flavonoid, 51.0mg/100g tannin, 0.0112mg/100g saponin, 246 mg/100g phenol and 0.02mg/100g carotenoid, afraamomum melegueta had 0.05mg/100g alkaloid, 6.23mg/100g flavonoid, 0.48 tannin, 1.35mg/100g saponin, 0.09 phenol and carotenoid was not detected, cola parchycarpa had 356mg/100g alkaloid, 27.2mg/100g flavonoid, 28.4mg/100g tainnin, 25.6mg/100g saponin, 44.2mg/100g phenol and 29.3mg/100g carotenoid. Although many of these constituents remain to be fully identified and characterised, broad classes include the poly phenol, carotenoids, hydrolysable tannins, ligands, naphthoquinones, phenolic acids, phytosterols and tocopherols. These phytochemicals have been shown to possess a range of bioactivity, including antioxidant, antiproliferative, anti-inflammatory, antiviral and hypocholesterolaemic properties. Wild fruits are rich source of tocopherols and total phenols and contain a wild variety of flavonoid and proanthocyanids. In conclusion, all selected wild fruits are rich in alkaloid, flavonoid, tannin, saponin, phenol, and carotenoid. This shows that the selected wild fruits are of health benefit. From the study it is revealed that increased consumption of any of the selected wild fruits like Irvingia gabonensis will help in less weight gain, Fight Erectile Dysfunction, Combat Diabetes and Lower Blood Pressure and if consumed can help to combat some health disorders.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title Page                                                                                                                                i

Declaration                                                                                                                              ii

Certification                                                                                                                            iii

Dedication                                                                                                                              iv

Acknowledgements                                                                                                                v

Table of Contents                                                                                                                   vi

List of Tables                                                                                                                          viii List of Figures                                                                                                                                    ix

Abstract                                                                                                                                  x

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1       Background of the Study                                                                                           1

1.2       Justification                                                                                                                 3

1.3       Aims and Objectives                                                                                                   3

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1       History of Medicinal Plants in Phytotherapy                                                             4

2.2       Importance of Medicinal Plants in Drug Discovery                                                   5

2.3       Phytochemicals                                                                                                           6

2.3.1    Secondary metabolites                                                                                                7

2.3.2    Classification of secondary metabolites                                                                     7

2.4       Chemistry of Flavonoids                                                                                            10

2.5       Wild Fruits                                                                                                                  13

2.5.1    Plukenetia conophora (Africa Walnut)                                                                       14

2.5.2    Irvingia gabonensis (Bush Mango)                                                                             17

2.1.3    Aframomum melegueta (Alligator Pepper)                                                                 18

2.1.4    Cola parchycarpa (Monkey Kola)                                                                              20

CHAPTER 3: MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1       Sampling                                                                                                                     23

3.2       Sample Pre-Treatment in Detail                                                                                  23

3.3       Determination of Saponin                                                                                           23

3.4       Determination of Alkaloid                                                                                          24

3.5       Determination of Phenol                                                                                             25

3.6       Determination of Flavanoids                                                                                      25

3.7       Determination of Tannin                                                                                             26

3.8       Determination of Carotenoid                                                                                      26

CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.0       Phytochemical Analysis                                                                                              27

4.1       Medicinal Implications                                                                                               30

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1       Conclusion                                                                                                                  32

5.2       Recommendation                                                                                                        32

REFERENCE                                                                                                                       34

LIST OF TABLE

Table 4.0: phytochemical composition of wild fruits (mg/100g)                                            27

LIST OF FIGURES

2.1: Anthocyanins                                                                                                       8

2.2: FLAVONES                                                                                                        9

2.3: FLAVONOL                                                                                                       9

2.5: Tannins                                                                                                                 10

2.6: Photograph of PLUKENETIA CONOPHORA (Africa Walnut)                        16

2.7: Photograph of IRVINGIA GABONENSIS (Bush Mango)                                   18

2.8: Photograph of AFRAMOMUM MELEGUETA (Alligator Pepper)                     20

2.9: Photograph of COLA PARCHYCARPA (Monkey Kola)                                                22

4. 1 Phytochemical chart of the selected wild fruits                                                  29

4.2: Graphical representation of Phytochemical of the selected wild fruits               30

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1       BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Fruits and vegetables, which contain abundant dietary fiber, vitamins, minerals and large amounts of phytochemicals (Balig. et al., 2011), are recommended by nutritionists because of their health benefits (Giampieri., et al, 2014). Plants synthesize secondary aromatic metabolites, most of which are phenols or their oxygen-substituted derivatives. Essential subclasses in this group of compounds include phenols, phenolic acids, quinones, flavones, flavonoids, flavonols, tannins, and coumarins. These groups of compounds show the antimicrobial effect and serve as plant defence mechanisms against pathogenic microorganisms. A plant that contain substances useful for therapeutic purposes or precursors for the synthesis of expensive drugs is a medicinal plant (WHO, 1997; Sofowora, 1982).

The use of traditional medicine is widespread. The term, conventional medicine is interchangeable with herbal drugs and natural drugs (Hazan and Atta, 2005). Man has been using plants to treat infectious diseases even before the discovery of microbes. The notion of some plants having the potential to heal is acceptable (Rios and Recio, 2005). A medicinal plant is one that contains substances necessary for therapeutic use or is a precursor for synthesizing other drugs. Plants play a significant role in traditional medicine due to their antimicrobial properties (Sofowora, 1993). The medicinal value of these plants depends on the chemical substances that produce physiological action on both the human and animal body (Edeoga et al., 2005). The most important of these bioactive constituents which are mainly secondary metabolites are alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins and phenolic compounds. These phytochemicals are toxic to microbial cells.

Highly reactive free radicals present in biological systems results from cell metabolic activities such as oxidation (Pisoschi et al., 2009) and external factors such as tobacco smoke,

UV radiation and other environmental pollutants (Murillo et al., 2012). These initiate degenerative reactions in biological systems resulting in secondary damage to organic molecules especially the bio-membranes such as proteins, lipids, and also nucleic acids (Pisoschi et al., 2009). Human disorders such as coronary heart diseases, atherosclerosis, aging, cancers, chronic fatigue, and Alzheimer’s disease have been attributed to the degenerative reactions of these oxidizing agents (Sochor et al., 2010). Biological systems maintain equilibrium through the mechanisms of the enzymes and non-enzymes compounds in the antioxidants.  The antioxidant activity of a system tends to protect against degenerative/ oxidative reactions resulting from the oxidizing agents (Sochor et al., 2010). However, many human cells unlike plants' do not generate adequate amounts of antioxidants to protect against oxidative reactions of the organisms (Pisoschi et al., 2009). Hence, there is need to look for more dietary sources of antioxidants (Liu, 2003).

The need is more with the increased number of non-communicable diseases (NCDs) especially in the developing nations who see a rise in the NCDs is evident with the current multiplicity of infectious diseases (Hall et al., 2009). Fruits represent one such source of dietary antioxidants (Liu, 2003) necessitating the need for their increased consumption (Hall et al., 2009). The total antioxidant or free radical scavenging activity of fruits is mainly attributed to the additive and synergistic effects of natural phytochemicals notably, the phenolic compounds (Liu, 2003; Cartea et al., 2011).  In addition to their antioxidant activity, phytochemicals also impart other peculiar beneficial toxicological/ pharmacological effects in humans. Thus, a measure of the free radical scavenging activity and phytochemical composition of fruits indicates the potential health benefits from their consumption. It is known that natural sources of antioxidants such as fruits and vegetables are more advantageous to health than the synthetic counterparts/supplements (Liu, 2003).

Despite extensive research work on the antioxidant activity and the phytochemical composition of fruits, little is available about the many tropical underutilized fruits in developing nations. Africa faces a similar challenge with its myriad of underutilised tree fruits (Abebrese et al., 2007).

1.2 JUSTIFICATION

Fruits represent one such source of dietary antioxidants (Liu, 2003) necessitating the need for their increased consumption (Hall et al., 2009). According to the World Health Organization (WHO), 80% of the world's population uses medicinal plants as the main primary health care source in the treatment of diseases. In African countries the rate is much higher (Ajose, 2007). Limited scientific evidence regarding safety and efficacy to support the continued therapeutic application of some of these herbal remedies exists compared to such evidence for synthetically formulated drugs (Sowemimo et al., 2007). The utilization of the medicinal plants is often based on ancestral experience. With the upsurge in the use of herbal remedies, there is a need for a thorough scientific evaluation to validate or disprove the supposedly therapeutic effects of some of these medicinal plants. Most of the wild fruits have been neglected due ignorance of its therapeutic, health and medicinal importance. There is therefore need to study the phytochemical composition as well as medicinal implication of some of these wild fruits.

1.3 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

The current study aims at investigating the phytochemical composition of plukenetia conophora, irvingia gabonensis, aframomum melegueta, and cola parchycarpa. The research also aims at determining the medicinal implications of the selected wild fruits.

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