ABSTRACT
This research work determined the chemical composition of enriched pap made from yellow corn and red sorghum. The Specific objectives were to determine the proximate composition of enriched pap made from yellow maize and red sorghum, the mineral composition of enriched pap made from yellow maize and red sorghum, assess the vitamin composition of enriched pap made from yellow maize and red sorghum and anti-nutrient composition of enriched pap made from yellow maize and red sorghum. The work used experimental design to determine the proximate composition, minerals, vitamin and anti-nutrient content, as well as sensory properties of the enriched pap were evaluated using statistically analyzed by one way analysis of variance using Statistical Package for Social Science version 23.0. The proximate composition revealed that the moisture content (77.26 to 82.73%), crude protein (5.03 to 13.08%), fat (0.84 to 3.74%), dietary fibre (0.02 to 0.05%), ash (0.65 to 0.97%), carbohydrate (2.69 to 12.98), energy value (70.62 to 105.66kcal) of the enriched pap. Minerals like phosphorus (138.67 to 285.12 mg/100g), calcium (73.49 to 80.44mg/100g), sodium (36.53 to 49.99mg/100g), potassium (199.65 to 327.56mg/100g), magnesium (48.95 to 81.06mg/100g), iron (4.35 to 6.28) were obtained in the enriched pap. The enriched pap possessed pro vitamin A (3.44 to 58.68), Vit B1 (0.34 to 0.52mg/100g), Vit B2 (0.07 to 0.61 mg/100g), Vit B3 (1.37 to 2.43mg/100g), Vit C (2.86 to 3.14 mg/100g) and Vit E (0.58 to 1.77 mg/100g). The antinutrient contents of the enriched pap show the presence of Tannin (0.44 to 0.54 mg/100g), Phytate (0.26 to 0.38 mg/100g), Oxalate (0.14 to 0.27 mg/100g), The sensory evaluation content of the enriched pap revealed that the mean score for appearance ranged from 4.80 to 6.85, whereas 5.10 to 6.30, 5.00 to 6.50, 5.05 to 7.10 and 5.20 to 7.45 was obtained as the mean score for taste, mouth feel, consistency, and general acceptability of the enriched pap. This study showed that nutritious and acceptable enriched pap samples with its antinutrient constituents where processed from yellow corn and red sorghum.
TABLE
OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE I
CERTIFICATION II
DEDICATION III
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS IV
TABLE OF CONTENTS V
LIST OF TABLES IX
LIST OF FIGURES X
ABSTRACT XI
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study 1
1.2 Statement
of the Problem 3
1.3 Objectives
of the Study 5
1.3.1 General
Objective of the study 5
1.3.2 Specific
objectives of the study 5
1.4 Significance of the Study 6
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Maize 7
2.1.2 Maize
flour 8
2.1.3 Taxonomy
of maize 9
2.1.4 Nutritional value of
maize 9
2.1.5 Health benefits of maize 12
2.1.6 Medicinal value of
maize 13
2.2 Sorghum 14
2.2.1 Description 15
2.2.2 Taxonomy of Sorghum 15
2.2.3 Nutritional value of sorghum 17
2.2.4 Food application of sorghum 17
2.2.4.1 Tuwo Production 17
2.2.4.2 Sorghum
Ball Production “Fura” 18
2.2.4.3 Gruel
Production 19
2.3.4 Nutrient composition of sorghum 20
2.3 Pap 21
2.3.1 Pap Enrichment 22
2.3.1.1 Milk 19
2.3.1.2 Composition of milk 23
2.3.2.1 Egg 23
2.3.2.2 Egg Nutrients 25
2.3.2.2.1 Proteins 26
2.3.2.2.2 Carbohydrates 26
2.3.2.2.3
Vitamins and Choline 27
2.3.2.2.4
Minerals and Trace Elements 28
2.3.2.2.5
Lipids 28
CHAPTER 3
MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1 Experimental Design 29
3.2 Sample Collection 29
3.3 Sample Preparation 29
3.3.1 Preparation of pap from yellow corn and
sorghum 29
3.3.1.1 Preparation of pap (ogi) from yellow corn 29
3.3.1.2 Preparation of pap (ogi) from sorghum 31
3.4 Packaging and Storage of Sample 32
3.5 Chemical Analysis 32
3.5.1 Proximate Composition 32
3.5.1.1 Determination of moisture content 32
3.5.1.2 Determination of ash 33
3.5.1.3 Determination of fat 33
3.5.1.4 Determination of crude protein 34
3.5.1.5 Determination of dietary fiber 35
3.5.1.6 Determination of carbohydrate content 35
3.5.2 Determination of Vitamins. 36
3.5.2.1 Pro-Vitamin A 36
3.5.2.2 Vitamin B1 (Thiamin) 37
3.5.2.3 Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin) 38
3.5.2.4 Niacin 39
3.5.2.5 Determination of Vitamin E 40
3.5.3 Mineral Content Analysis 41
3.5.3.1 Determination of Phosphorous 42
3.5.3.2 Iron Determination 42
3.5.3.3 Determination of Calcium and Magnesium 43
3.6 Statistical Analysis 46
CHAPTER 4
RESULTS AND
DISCUSSION
4.1 Proximate
Composition of Enriched Pap Made From Yellow Corn and Red Sorghum 47
4.2 Mineral
Content of Enriched Pap Made from Yellow Corn and Red
Sorghum 55
4.3 Vitamin
Content of Enriched Pap Made From Yellow Corn and Red
Sorghum 61
4.4 Anti-Nutrient
Content of Enriched Pap Made From Yellow Corn and Red Sorghum 67
4.5 Sensory
Properties of Enriched Pap Made From Yellow Corn and Red Sorghum 70
CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Conclusion 75
5.2 Recommendations 76
REFERENCES 77
LIST
OF TABLES
Table 2.1: Nutrient composition of maize 11
Table 4.1: Proximate Composition of
Enriched Pap Made From Yellow Corn and Red
Sorghum 48
Table 4.2: Mineral Content of
Enriched Pap Made From Yellow Corn and Red
Sorghum 56
Table 4.3: Vitamin Content of
Enriched Pap Made From Yellow Corn and Red
Sorghum 62
Table 4.4: Antinutrient Content of
Enriched Pap Made From Yellow Corn and Red
Sorghum 68
Table 4.5: Sensory Properties of
Enriched Pap Made From Yellow Corn and Red
Sorghum 72
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
3.3.1: Flow chart for the production of Ogi from yellow corn 30
Figure
3.3.2: Flow chart for the production of Ogi from sorghum 31
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND
OF THE STUDY
Cereals
have become one of the important sources of food throughout the world. Sorghum
has the highest growth rate of major food crops in Western Africa and it is
believed to have the greatest potential among food crops for attaining
technological breakthroughs that will improve food production in any region.
Sorghum constitutes about 75% of the cereals consumed in all parts of Nigeria
today (Ekpenyong et al., 2012).
Cereals
often present low contents of proteins and micronutrients, including iron and
Zinc (Newell, 2008). According to Peck et al. (2008), no studies have
been conducted to evaluate the effect of Zinc on the quality of grains or to
assess if the increase of available Zinc can raise protein concentration in
grains (Alloway, 2009), because Zinc deficiency results in low protein content
in plants (Moinuddin and Imas, 2010).
The
most frequent nutrient deficiencies in humans are those of iron, Zn, iodine and
vitamin A, and these deficiencies occur especially among women and children in
developing countries (WHO, 2002). Zinc deficiency in humans is common, and it
is estimated to affect 25% of the world population (Maret and Sandstead, 2006),
especially in several regions with soils deficient in zinc, including India,
Pakistan, China, Iran and Turkey (Cakmak et al., 2010; Hotz and Brown,
2004).
The
lack of this micronutrient in human beings is responsible for severe health
complications, including problems in physical growth, impaired immune system,
reduced learning ability, increased risk of infections, deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA) damage and cancer development (Gibson, 2006; Hotz and Brown, 2004;
Prasad, 2007). It is possible that low quality cereal grains occur because the
main goal of plant breeding programs has been to increase yield during the last
decades and not considering the nutritional contents (Peleg et al.,
2008).
In
soils with slight Zinc deficiency, the yields and quality can be affected
without any evident symptoms (Alloway, 2009), which can result in food
production with low nutritional value. Therefore, the enrichment of such
cereals with Zinc is an important global challenge and of great priority in
research (Cakmak et al., 2010). Therefore, agronomic techniques suitable
to elevate Zinc, protein and carbohydrate contents in grains are of great.
Pap
is fermented maize also known as “Ogi”. Ogi or Pap is a local generic name for
a semi solid food made from cereals (commonly Sorghum, Maize and Millet). It is
called by different names in Nigeria like ‘agbada’. ‘igbado’, ‘yangan’
(Yoruba); ‘masara’ or ‘dawar masara’ (Hausa); ‘ogbado’ or ‘oka’ (Igbo) (Adeyemo
and Onilude, 2018).
Pap
(Ogi) is a staple cereal fermented product found predominantly in western and
Southern Nigeria and is usually the first native food given to babies at
weaning. It is produced generally by soaking maize grain (zea mays) in warm
water for 2-3 days followed by wet milling and sieving through a screen mesh.
Nnanyelego and Onofiok (2004) reported the use of Ogi as a weaning food in
western Nigeria to supplement breastfeeding between ages of 3-6months for young
children.
It is a fermented maize product
obtained as smooth gel or mixed with boiling water to form a porridge, which
has a sour taste. Similar maize preparations are referred to as “Akana” and
“Kenkey” in Ghana (Charlotte et al.,
2015). It is a popular staple and most popular traditional weaning food in West
African countries (Bolaji et al.,
2015).
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Cereals
are grasses mostly cultivated for their edible grains, and they represent
important source of minerals and proteins in the developing world. Grains are
used as basic food stock in most countries (Cakmak, 2008). In developing
countries, their diet is often based on cereal consumption, which has low zinc
(Zn) content and bioavailability (Cakmak et al., 2010).
However,
the nutritional composition is equally important and has been largely neglected
in such programs, especially concerning micronutrient contents (Cakmak, 2002).
Thus, future studies assessing more efficient Zinc application methods to
promote Zinc uptake in plants and to maximize the accumulation of this micronutrient
in grains must be developed (Camak, 2008).
More
than 2 billion people are affected by micronutrient deficiency (World Health
Organization (WHO), 2001) a condition often referred to as “hidden hunger.”
Micronutrient deficiency is particularly prevalent in poor rural and urban
areas where limited economic resources prevent diversity in diets. The most
common micronutrient deficiencies are connected to low dietary intakes of
vitamin A, iron, and iodine (Allen et
al., 2006).
Micronutrient
deficiency has been considered as a major risk factor for child survival in
Nigeria, increasing the risk of death from common diseases such as acute
gastroenteritis, pneumonia, and measles (Ekweagwu et al., 2008). The prevalence of micronutrient deficiencies in
Nigerian children under 5 years of age was reported by the Nigerian Food
Consumption Survey as, 23.3%, 34.0%, 13.0%, and 20.0% for Vitamin A deficiency,
iron deficiency anemia, Iodine deficiency disorder, and zinc deficiency
disorders respectively (International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA),
2004).
However,
other more neglected micronutrient deficiencies are due to non-availability of
selenium, zinc, and calcium in the diet which significantly affect the health
of individuals (Hagan et al., 2010).
It has been reported that zinc deficiency contributes to the death of 800,000
children globally per year, whereas rickets caused by calcium deficiency is
gaining more attention than before (Hagan et
al., 2010), Omega-3 fatty acid deficiency is also important.
Enriched
pap is a good source of carbohydrates, protein, vitamins, minerals and fat
depending on the food items the pap is enriched with. According to United
Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund and World Health Organisation
(UNICEF/WHO) (2017) statistics which reported that children of under-five age
are the most vulnerable group as a result of inadequate care and feeding
practices from the respective parent and care-givers.
However,
the report of UNICEF/WHO (2017) shows that the prevalence rate of malnutrition
among under-five children in Nigeria was 31.5% for underweight (weight for
age), stunted (height for age) 46.3% and
wasted (weight for height) 10.8%.
Since
pap is mostly used as food for infant and young children in West African countries,
enriched pap is a food that its nutrient contents or value has been increased
or improved and can be used as complementary food for children older than six
months of age and therapeutic diet for people with dysphagia and other
gastrointestinal tract problems which will improve their nutritional status as
well as reduce the rate of protein energy malnutrition and micronutrient
deficiencies also known as ‘hidden hunger’ among under 5 children and diseased
person in our societies. The study is
designed to prepare enrich pap from yellow corn and red sorghum and analyze
their chemical composition.
1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
1.3.1 General Objective of the study
The general objective of this study was
to determine the chemical composition of enriched pap made from yellow corn and
red sorghum.
1.3.2 Specific objectives of the study
The specific objectives of the study are
to:
1. determine
the proximate composition of enriched pap made from yellow maize and red
sorghum
2. determine
the mineral composition of enriched pap made from yellow maize and red sorghum
3. assess
the vitamin composition of enriched pap made from yellow maize and red sorghum
4. determine
the anti-nutrient composition of enriched pap made from yellow maize and red
sorghum
1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
This
study will improve the knowledge of people and be of great importance since it
will increase the awareness about the use of yellow maize and red sorghum to
improve the nutritional quality of pap. It will beneficial in the weaning of
infants and young children so as to improve their nutritional status. The study will reduce feeding cost in the
societies compare to the use of infant formula since corn is one of the staple
foods in the country and will be cheaper than infant formula.
The
result of the study will be useful to Nutritionist and Dietitians, Pediatrician
and other health professionals as enriched pap can be used as therapeutic diet
for stabilization and rehabilitation of malnourished infant and children in the
society to reduce the prevalence of under nutrition among children of under 5
years of age and general population.
The
result of the present study will also be used by health professionals in the
treatment of different diseases especially in tube feeding and gastric feeding.
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