ROLE OF UNRWA IN THE ISRAEL-HAMAS WAR 2023-2025

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

The United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA) was created by the UN General Assembly in 1949 by Resolution 302 (IV) to deliver "direct relief and works programmes" to Palestine refugees until a just and durable solution to their plight. Its mandate periodically renewed by the General Assembly embraces education, health, social services, camp infrastructure, and emergency assistance for registered Palestine refugees in Gaza, the West Bank (including East Jerusalem), Jordan, Lebanon, and Syria. UNRWA has traditionally been the cornerstone of essential services and a first-responder in emergencies in Gaza alone (Bordas, & Maria, 2024).

The 7 October 2023 Israel-Hamas war unleashed a record humanitarian emergency in Gaza, rapidly overloading civilian infrastructure and the aid network. Cycling displacement, mass destruction of housing stock, and enforced restrictions on access to aid facilitated the ability of UNRWA's widespread local presence its schools as shelters, clinics, warehouses, and staff rooms to be at the center of life-saving action. By mid-2025, UN and UNRWA situation reports derived from Gaza health authorities and OCHA indicated tens of thousands of fatalities, widespread injury, and extensive-scale internal displacement (OCHA, 2023). UN OCHA has consistently estimated that the overwhelming majority of Gaza's 2.1 million residents were displaced and lacking access to adequate shelter, sustenance, and basic services, demonstrating the structural dependence on UNRWA's infrastructure for survival. International humanitarian law commitments became a top legal regime governing evaluation of conduct of hostilities and humanitarian relief facilitation.

In January 2024, the International Court of Justice (ICJ), in provisional measures in case South Africa v. Israel, ordered Israel to take steps to refrain from acts prohibited under the Genocide Convention and to enable humanitarian assistance to civilians in Gaza (UNRWA, 2024). The Court reiterated and asserted these duties in following March and May 2024 orders, emphasizing expressly the need to allow full assistance into Gaza. The orders established international expectations for free humanitarian access and lent legal gravity to judgments on whether UNRWA and its partners could operate optimally (Bordas & Maria, 2024). Shamala, (2025) contends that the operational level, between 2023 – 2025, had two roles of UNRWA. In the first place, it upheld its core activities (primary care, education-in-emergencies, cash and food support) during war times, typically transforming its schools into shelters and mobile clinics.

In the second place, it guided and coordinated significant parts of the response aid in Gaza because of its unique presence, staff, and facilities. UNRWA situation reports in 2024 – 2025 recorded a few hundred fatalities among those seeking shelter in its facilities and recurring fuel, medical supply, and food shortages. Even with periodic convoy-delivered assistance, bottlenecks to access as divergent as border closures and complex inspection regimes to insecurity around delivery continuously constrained scale-up (Bilak, 2025). One of the biggest threats to the activities of UNRWA was in January 2024, when Israel alleged that some UNRWA employees had been implicated in the 7 October attacks (Magram et al., 2024). The allegations were met with rapid response from UN leadership (e.g., immediate dismissal of the involved staff) and an independent review of UNRWA's neutrality practices by a panel led by former French foreign minister Catherine Colonna (Nicholson, 2024). While the review identified where there was room for improvement, it concluded that UNRWA had "satisfying" structures to promote neutrality in relation to other UN agencies and NGOs, and that Israel had not provided evidence to substantiate membership claims against broader staff.

However, more than a dozen donor nations temporarily suspended funding subjecting the agency's Gaza operations to sharp financial hazards before some resumed contributions in 2024. The episode underscored how politicization of humanitarian intervention can encroach on continuity of aid in wartime (Passia, 2024). The humanitarian situation as of 2025 was catastrophic. UN and humanitarian officials repeatedly cautioned about being on the edge of catastrophic hunger, epidemic disease, and collapse of public health amidst ongoing hostilities and displacement, with UNRWA's Gaza program running under chronic insecurity and resource deficiency. UN and medical NGO field reports and recent media accounts painted dire pediatric case loads of explosion injuries, overcrowded shelters, and severe supply shortages. In contrast, the agency's localness and scale of operations during decades of service provision in Gaza were at its core but also a political lightning rod for contention (Al Jazeera, 2024).

This study positions UNRWA's agency throughout the war in the context of three overlapping debates in International Studies. First is the controversy around humanitarian access: how much can mandated agencies function at scale in siege-like contexts, and under what conditions do legal rulings (e.g., ICJ interim orders) translate into operational access? Second is the politicization-neutrality interplay: how can grievances against a minuscule minority of staff, already subject to investigation and due process, resonate through donor politics, risk aversion, and preservation of life-saving assistance? Third is effectiveness and accountability: how do we assess the performance of UNRWA when key indicators (mortality, food security, displacement) are affected not only by aid volume but also by the intensity of violence and geography, in addition to parties to the conflict restrictions? Knowledge of the role of UNRWA within the Israel–Hamas war (2023–2025) is therefore a requirement both for policy and scholarship.

It enlightens us on how a mandated UN agency navigates contested sovereignty, legal requirements, and donor pressures in reconciling humanitarian ideals of humanity, neutrality, impartiality, and independence. The findings have extrapolation beyond Gaza for the manner the international system structures humanitarian relief in protracted conflict where civilian needs are gigantic, access is restricted, and aid agencies themselves become forces in the political struggle over narratives, legitimacy, and control.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

The Israel-Hamas war that erupted on 7 October 2023 has been one of the most devastating wars in Gaza Strip history, with apocalyptic humanitarian consequences. There has been destruction of civil infrastructure, death of thousands of individuals, and over a million repeatedly displaced persons. There, the United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA) has been the predominant humanitarian organization that provides shelter, food, healthcare, and education to Gaza's predominantly refugee residents. Never before, however, have the agency's activities faced such unprecedented pressure.

Secondly, denial of access, frontier closures, and attacks on UNRWA facilities greatly hindered the delivery of humanitarian assistance. The UN and humanitarian actors indicate that despite calls from the international community for safe and unhindered access, humanitarian convoys were delayed, denied, or limited, and most of the civilians were left depending on inadequate and irregular aid shipments (OCHA, 2024; UNRWA, 2025).

Secondly, UNRWA's impartiality and credibility were questioned following claims in January 2024 by Israel that individual staff members were involved in the 7 October attacks. Although later independent investigations found no corroborated evidence to substantiate the original claims, and affirmed that UNRWA had relatively robust neutrality assurances, a number of donor governments suspended or delayed funding at the height of the crisis. This politicization of aid did not only stop operations but also exposed the vulnerability of agencies that accepted voluntary donor contributions (UN Independent Review, 2024).

Third, UNRWA staff, facilities, and even beneficiaries themselves were directly targeted. Dozens of UNRWA schools and health centres were destroyed or damaged, many of its facilities that were being used as emergency shelters were struck, and over 150 UNRWA staff members had been killed by mid-2025. These circumstances give rise to urgent questions about the protection of humanitarian personnel and property under international humanitarian law, and the ability of UN agencies to operate in safety in active conflict theatres (UNRWA Situation Reports, 2024–2025).

Lastly, despite its central role, UNRWA has been caught in the crosscurrents of political conflict between Israel, donor governments, and the Palestinian leadership. This has made its efficient delivery more complex, undermined its institutional credibility, and fueled controversies about whether humanitarian agencies can remain impartial in highly politicized conflicts.
Thus, the problem this study tries to solve is the tension between UNRWA's mandated humanitarian role and the difficult realities of operating in a highly violent and politicized environment. More precisely, the study asks to what extent UNRWA has been able to realize its humanitarian mandate in Gaza during the Israel–Hamas war (2023–2025), the challenges it faced in doing so, and the implications of these challenges for humanitarian principles, international law, and the survival of civilian populations.

1.3 Research Questions:

This study is guided by the following research questions:

      i.         What has been the role of UNRWA in providing humanitarian assistance during the Israel–Hamas war (2023–2025)?

     ii.         What major challenges has UNRWA faced in fulfilling its mandate during the conflict?

   iii.         How have international legal frameworks, particularly humanitarian law and ICJ provisional measures, influenced UNRWA’s operations in Gaza?

   iv.         In what ways have political pressures, including funding suspensions and neutrality controversies, affected UNRWA’s effectiveness and credibility?

1.4 Objectives of the Study:

The general objective of the study is to examine the role of the United Nations Relief and Works Agency (UNRWA) in the Israel–Hamas war (2023–2025) and assess its effectiveness in delivering humanitarian assistance under conditions of armed conflict. The specific objectives are;

      i.         To analyze the nature and scope of UNRWA’s humanitarian interventions in Gaza during the Israel–Hamas war.

     ii.         To identify the key challenges and constraints UNRWA faced in carrying out its mandate during the conflict.

   iii.         To assess how international humanitarian law and ICJ provisional measures shaped UNRWA’s operations and access to affected populations.

   iv.         To evaluate the impact of political pressures, including donor funding suspensions and neutrality controversies, on UNRWA’s legitimacy and effectiveness.

1.5 Research Assumptions

This study is guided by the following assumptions:

      i.         That UNRWA remains the primary humanitarian agency delivering large-scale relief and essential services to civilians in Gaza during the Israel–Hamas war (2023–2025).

     ii.         That UNRWA’s ability to fulfill its mandate is significantly shaped by external factors such as border restrictions, funding flows, political pressures, and the security situation on the ground.

   iii.         That international humanitarian law, including the ICJ’s provisional measures, has an influence on how humanitarian access and operations are negotiated during the conflict.

   iv.         That political controversies surrounding UNRWA, including donor funding suspensions and neutrality allegations, have implications for the agency’s effectiveness and credibility in humanitarian operations.

1.6 Significance of the Study:

This study is significant for several reasons. First, it contributes to academic scholarship in International Studies by providing a contemporary analysis of UNRWA’s role in one of the most devastating conflicts in recent Middle Eastern history. While much literature exists on UNRWA’s long-standing involvement in Palestine, few studies have systematically examined its operations during the Israel–Hamas war of 2023–2025, which is characterized by unprecedented humanitarian crises and intense international scrutiny.

Second, the study is of practical importance to policymakers and humanitarian practitioners. By highlighting the challenges UNRWA faced including access restrictions, resource shortages, politicization, and direct targeting of its facilities—the research provides insights into how humanitarian agencies can improve their resilience, neutrality safeguards, and crisis management mechanisms in protracted conflicts.

Third, the findings are relevant to international legal and diplomatic actors. The analysis of how international humanitarian law and ICJ provisional measures shaped UNRWA’s operations will offer evidence for evaluating the effectiveness of international legal instruments in ensuring humanitarian access during armed conflicts. This is crucial for the refinement of global humanitarian governance.

Fourth, the study will be useful to donor governments, advocacy groups, and civil society organizations. By examining how political pressures and funding suspensions impacted UNRWA’s ability to fulfill its mandate, the research underscores the implications of politicizing humanitarian aid and offers recommendations for ensuring continuity of life-saving assistance irrespective of political disputes.

Finally, the study will serve as a valuable resource for future researchers who may wish to build on its findings to explore broader questions on the politics of humanitarianism, the role of UN agencies in armed conflicts, and the intersection of law, politics, and humanitarian response in the Middle East and beyond.

1.7 Research Methodology

This study adopts a qualitative and descriptive research design, relying primarily on secondary data sources to analyze the role of UNRWA in the Israel–Hamas war (2023–2025). Data will be drawn from official UNRWA reports, UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) updates, International Court of Justice rulings, academic journal articles, policy briefs, and credible media reports published between 2023 and 2025.

The study employs a documentary analysis method, which allows for the systematic review of existing materials relevant to humanitarian operations, international humanitarian law, and conflict studies. The data collected will be critically analyzed thematically, aligning findings with the research objectives and questions.

The choice of methodology is informed by the security and access challenges of conducting fieldwork in Gaza during an ongoing conflict, making secondary data the most reliable and ethical source of information. This approach ensures objectivity while capturing a wide range of perspectives, including those of humanitarian actors, international legal bodies, donor governments, and affected communities as reported through established channels.

1.8 Scope and Limitations of the Study:

This study focuses on examining the role of the United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA) during the Israel–Hamas war of 2023–2025. Geographically, the scope is limited to the Gaza Strip, where UNRWA’s humanitarian operations were most profoundly tested due to large-scale displacement, destruction of civilian infrastructure, and severe restrictions on aid access. Thematically, the study concentrates on four dimensions:

      i.         UNRWA’s humanitarian interventions in Gaza during the conflict.

     ii.         The challenges and constraints it encountered in carrying out its mandate.

   iii.         The influence of international humanitarian law and International Court of Justice (ICJ) provisional measures on its operations.

   iv.         The impact of political pressures, including donor funding suspensions and neutrality controversies, on its legitimacy and effectiveness.

Despite its broad relevance, this study is constrained by certain limitations. First, the volatile and ongoing nature of the Israel–Hamas conflict means that data are subject to rapid changes, and some information may be incomplete or contested. Second, due to security and access restrictions, the research relies primarily on secondary sources such as UN reports, humanitarian situation briefs, journal articles, and credible media publications, rather than extensive primary fieldwork in Gaza. Third, political sensitivities surrounding UNRWA’s role may result in divergent narratives from different stakeholders Israel, Palestinian authorities, donor governments, and the UN system which the study must carefully balance. Finally, while the research provides valuable insights into UNRWA’s role, it does not claim to exhaustively address all aspects of the Israel–Hamas war, but instead focuses on those directly connected to humanitarian operations and international humanitarian law.

1.9 Operational Definition of Key Terms:

For clarity and precision, the following key terms are defined as they are used in this study:

UNRWA: United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East, is a UN agency established in 1949 by General Assembly Resolution 302 (IV), mandated to provide humanitarian assistance, education, healthcare, and social services to registered Palestine refugees, particularly in Gaza, the West Bank, Jordan, Lebanon, and Syria.

Israel–Hamas War (2023–2025): The armed conflict that began on 7 October 2023 following Hamas’ large-scale attacks against Israel and Israel’s subsequent military response in Gaza, leading to massive civilian casualties, displacement, and destruction of infrastructure.

Humanitarian Assistance: The provision of life-saving aid, including food, water, shelter, healthcare, education-in-emergencies, and protection, aimed at alleviating human suffering during crises and armed conflicts.

International Humanitarian Law (IHL): A body of international law, also known as the law of armed conflict, that regulates the conduct of hostilities and seeks to protect civilians, humanitarian workers, and non-combatants during armed conflicts.

ICJ Provisional Measures: Temporary orders issued by the International Court of Justice to prevent irreparable harm and preserve the rights of parties in disputes, pending a final judgment in this case referring to orders concerning humanitarian access and protection of civilians in Gaza during the war.

Humanitarian Neutrality: The principle requiring humanitarian agencies to refrain from taking sides in hostilities or engaging in controversies of a political, racial, religious, or ideological nature while delivering aid.

Donor Funding Suspension: The temporary withdrawal or withholding of financial support by governments or institutions to UNRWA due to allegations, political pressures, or concerns about neutrality, which impacts the agency’s ability to deliver humanitarian services.

Refugees (Palestine Refugees): Persons whose normal place of residence was Palestine between 1 June 1946 and 15 May 1948 and who lost both home and livelihood as a result of the 1948 conflict, including their descendants, as recognized under UNRWA’s operational definition.

1.10 Organisation of Chapters

This research is structured into five chapters, organized as follows:

Chapter One introduces the study, providing the background, research problem, questions, objectives, assumptions, significance, methodology, scope, limitations, key terms, and organization of the chapters.

Chapter Two reviews relevant literature and theoretical perspectives. It presents conceptual clarifications, an empirical review of related studies, a theoretical review, and the theoretical framework guiding the study.

Chapter Three provides a historical analysis of the study area, tracing the evolution of the Israel–Palestine conflict, the establishment of UNRWA, and the developments leading up to the Israel–Hamas war (2023–2025).

Chapter Four presents data analysis and discusses the findings, focusing on UNRWA’s interventions, the challenges encountered, the impact of international law, and the role of political pressures.

Chapter Five summarizes the study, draws conclusions, and provides recommendations for policy, humanitarian practice, and future research.

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