ABSTRACT
The study is on gender-based analysis of labour utilization and productivity differentials in rice production in Enugu State, Nigeria. Multi-stage sampling technique was employed to select 120 respondents. Primary data were collected with the use of a well-structured questionnaire through the aid of enumerators. Relevant descriptive and inferential statistics such as frequencies, percentages, means, standard deviation, Z-test and multiple regression models were used for data analysis. The result showed that mean ages were 43 and 42 years for females and males; while 70% of the female rice farmers were married and 48.33% of the male rice farmers were married. The mean household sizes were 7 and 6 persons for male and female respondents respectively while majority (100%) and (88.3%) of the respondents had formal education for both female and male rice farmers. The mean hectares cultivated were 2.18 and 2.62 for female and male farmers respectively. A combination of family labour and hired sources contributed most of the labour supplied for rice production for female (71.6%) and male (88.3%) rice farmers in the area. It is evident from the result that male rice farmers were more productive than their female counterpart. The Z-value was 8.421 significant at 1% level of probability and positively signed. Labour utilization of the male farmers was positively influenced by distance, farm size, land ownership, credit and education while labour utilization of the female farmers was positively influenced by distance, farm size, age, and credit and negatively influenced by household size and extension. Also labour productivity of the male farmers was positively influenced by distance, farm size, age and credit and negatively influence by land ownership while labour productivity of the female farmers was positively influenced by distance, farm size, age and credit and negatively influenced by land ownership. Furthermore, the estimated production function of the female rice farmers indicated that farm size, labour and planting materials were the significant variables influencing the output of the female rice farmers while farm size, labour and fertilizer were the significant variables influencing the output of the male rice farmers. From the result above the nature of the returns to scale of an average male farmer in the study area was 1.078 while female farmer in the study area was 0.725. High incidence of pests was ranked as foremost constraints limiting rice production by male farmers while lack of market, road and social facilities was ranked as foremost constraints limiting rice production by female farmers. The study therefore recommends that farmers utilize their family labour efficiently in order to reduce the hired labour that increases the cost of rice production and decreases farm revenue. Also government and stakeholders should assist farmers through timely and adequate input supply, creating effective services and enabling environment, for efficient utilization of agricultural inputs on farms, which will lead to prospect in improving the productivity of of the rice farmers.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Page i
Declaration ii
Certification iii
Dedication iv
Acknowledgement v
Table of contents vi
List of Tables x
List of Figures xii
Abstract xiii
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Information 1
1.2 Problem Statement 5
1.3 Objectives of Study 8
1.4 Hypotheses of the Study 8
1.5 Justification for the
Study 8
CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF
RELATED LITERATURE 11
2.1 Conceptual Framework 11
2.1.1 Gender: roles and relations 12
2.1.1.1 Gender and division of labour in
agricultural production 12
2.1.1.2 Gender and differential in access to
factors of production 14
2.1.1.3 Gender and
agricultural productivity 18
2.1.2 Labour
measurement 18
2.1.2.1 Labour productivity 19
2.1.2.2 Labour efficiency 21
2.1.2.3 Factors impacting
labour efficiency and productivity 22
2.1.2.4 Farm & family
characteristics 25
2.1.2.5 Sources of
agricultural labour 26
2.1.2.6 Labour use in
agricultural production 27
2.1.3 Rice farming in
Nigeria. 29
2.1.3.1 Government
intervention in rice production 33
2.1.3.2 Trends in Nigeria’s
rice economy 36
2.1.3.3 Nigeria’s rice production systems 39
2.1.4 Nigeria milled
rice production, Nigeria milled rice imports and milled rice export 40
2.1.5 Policy and political economy of rice
production, consumption and importation 47
2.2 Theoretical Framework 49
2.3 Empirical Framework 64
2.4 Analytical Framework 76
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY 78
3.1 Study Area 78
3.2
Sampling Techniques 79
3.3
Data Collection 80
3.4 Data
Analysis 80
3.5 Model Specification 80
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND
DISCUSSION
4.1
SOCIO-ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF RESPONDENTS 85
4.1.1 Age: 85
4.1.2 Marital
status: 86
4.1.3.
Household size 87
4.1.4 Level of
education 88
4.1.5: Farming
experience 89
4.1.6 Extension agent contact: 90
4.1.7 Farm
Size: 91
4.1.8 Membership of farmers’ associations 92
4.1.9 Access to credit 93
4.2 Sources
and utilization of farm labour for rice production 94
4.3 Labour
productivity differential between male
and female rice farmers 97
4.4 Determinants of labour utilization and productivity by male and female farmers 99
4.4.1 Determinants of labour utilization by male rice farmers. 99
4.4.2 Determinants of labour utilization by female rice farmers. 101
4.4.3 Determinants of labour productivity by male rice farmers. 104
4.4.4 Determinants of labour productivity by female male rice farmers. 106
4.5 Production
function, elasticity of production and returns to scale of the rice farmers. 108
4.5.1
Production function of female rice farmers 108
4.5.2 Production function
of male rice farmers 110
4.5.3 Elasticity
of production and returns to scale for male rice farmers. 111
4.5.4
Elasticity of production and returns to scale for female rice farmers 112
4.6 Constraints faced by male and female rice farmers 113
4.6.1 Constraints in farm labour utilization by rice farmers 113
4.6.2 Constraints in rice production for rice farmers 115
CHAPTER 5: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
118
5.1 Summary 118
5.2 Conclusion 120
5.3 Recommendation
121
References 122
LIST
OF TABLES
2.1. Nigeria Milled Rice Production by Year
from 1999-2013 44
2.2. Nigeria Milled Rice Imports by Year from 1999-2013 45
2.3. Nigeria Milled Rice Exports by Year from
1999-2013 45
2.4. Nigeria Milled Rice Domestic Consumption
by Year from 1999-2013 46
4.1. Distribution of Respondents based on Age. 85
4.2. Distribution of Respondents based on
marital status 86
4.3 Distribution of respondents based on
household size 87
4.4 Distribution of respondents based on level
of Education 88
4.5 Distribution of respondents based on Farming
Experience 89
4.6 Distribution Respondents based on contact
with extension Agents 90
4.7 Distribution of respondents based on Farm
Size 91
4.8: Distribution of the
respondents based on membership of farmers' Association 92
4.9: Distribution of the Respondents Based On
Access to Credit 93
4.10: Sources of Farm Labour
for Rice Production in the study area. 94
4.11: Utilization of Farm
Labour for rice production in the study area. 95
4.12: Labour productivity between male and female rice farmers 96
4.13 Z-test for labour productivity
differential between male and female
rice farmer 98
4.14 Estimated
determinants of labour utilization by male
rice farmers. 99
4.15 Estimated
determinants of labour utilization by female
rice farmers. 101
4.16 Estimated
determinants of labour productivity by male
rice farmers. 104
4.17: Estimated
determinants of labour productivity by female rice farmers. 106
4.18 Estimated Production Functions of the
female farmers 108
4.19 Estimated Production Functions of the
male Farmers 110
4.20 .Overall
Elasticity of Production for male rice farmers 111
4.21 .Overall
Elasticity of Production for female farmers 112
4.22: Constraints in farm labour utilization by rice farmers 112
4.23 Constraints in rice production by rice farmers 113
4.24: Z-Test for output
differential between male and female
rice farmers 117
4.25: Z-test for labour
utilization differential between male
and female rice farmers 117
LIST
OF FIGURE
2.1: Rice cultivation in the world. Source FAOSTAT (average of
1980–2014) 40
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY
The Nigerian economy has gone through many years of vicissitude,
especially in the agricultural sector and this sector remains one of the pillars of
Africa’s economic, social and rural development. About 70% of Africans and
roughly 80% of the continent’s poor live in rural areas and depend mainly on
agriculture for their livelihood (Maxwell, 2001; Kinkingninhoun-Medagbe, 2014). The rice subsector is still growing but is faced with many challenges,
including biotic, abiotic, and socioeconomic constraints, with greater pressure
from the socioeconomic constraints (Abdul-Gafar et al., 2016). Rice is the most important agricultural product in the
world (Surakiat, et al., 2017;
Muthayya et al., 2014).
Rice is the most strategic food crop in West Africa
because of its contribution to food security of the populations and its impact
on the economy of households and countries (Seck et al., 2013; FAO, 2013). Rice is a staple crop throughout West Africa,
especially in Nigeria, Cote d’Ivoire, the Gambia, Guinea, Guinea Bissau,
Liberia, Burkina Faso, Senegal and Sierra Leone (Basorun, 2009). However,
continued fluctuation in rice production in the country is an indication of
limited capacity of the Nigeria rice economy to match the domestic demand which
can be attributed to the inability of the rice farmers to obtain maximum output
from the resources committed to the enterprise (Kolawole, 2010). The majority of the rice producing countries in Africa attained yield
below the world average (4.3MT) from 2008 to 2014 (Abdul-Gafar et al., 2017). Some of the pivotal
factors for the low yield are inadequate extension services, poor management
practices, and structural obstacles (Abdul-Gafar et al., 2017).
According to the economic
theory, three basic resources or factors of production, such as, land, labor
and capital have been considered as assessment parameters of sustainable
development (Longpichai et al.,
2012). In Nigeria, labour is a major source of employment opportunity for the
rural labour force and technological change is one of the major forces leading
to change in employment, output and functional income distribution (Job and Adebola, 2015). Labour plays
important economic and social roles in any economy. It is one of the key
factors of production as well as a source of livelihood to billions of people
worldwide (Schneider, 2005). Nigeria‟s agricultural production is highly labour
intensive. Over 90% of non-mechanized production systems depend on human
labour, and for mechanized production systems, between 50 and 60% of the tasks
depend on human labour (Shaib et al., 1997; Olayide, 2002).
Human labour is one of the
major sources of labour available to small-holder farmers in Nigeria.
Small-holder farmers contribute over 85% of domestic agricultural output in
Nigeria (Obike et al., 2017; Ikassim
and Olayinka, 2012). Thus, there is the need to continue to supply food to the
ever-growing Nigerian population which anchors on human labour productivity.
Olukunle, (2013) noted that hired labour contributed 88.0% of the total labour-use
on farms thus emphasizing its importance in agricultural activities. Other
types of human labour that could be employed are family labour and exchange
labour. Again, the seasonal relationship between the periodical changes in
labour cost reduction, use patterns and different labour operations meant to be
timely performed exert a limit to the proportion of household labour that can
be depended upon (Obike et al.,
2017).
The term ‘Labour Productivity’ is generally
defined as “the ratio of physical amount of output achieved in a given period
to the corresponding amount of labour expended” (Bloom and Humairm 2010). It may be true that any business organization
all wage payments are directly or indirectly based on the skill and
productivity of the workers, therefore labour productivity is considered as the
most important factors in productivity computations. A country’s capability to
improve its national output growth over time depends almost entirely on the
size of its labour force. This in turn propels the country’s productive
capacity and hence raises productivity (Qaisar and Foreman-Peck, 2007). In
Nigeria, labour productivity growth has been unsatisfactory. Indeed, there is a
huge decline in GDP per worker over the years; this implies low GDP per person
in the country. Nigeria’s productivity growth dividend opportunity is very
significant (OECD, 2008). However, the country has several challenges to
realizing such a productivity dividend (Bloom and Humairm 2010).
Gender is a concept used in social science
analysis to look at the role and activities of man and women (Ogunniyi et al., 2002). Sex is a statistics and
biological attribute based on natural characteristics and reproductive role
while gender is a dynamic, social construction that describes feminine and
masculine behavior (Doku, 1990). The word gender means more than sex. It is
culturally ascribed as a role performed by either of the sexes. Aina (2002)
viewed the issue of gender as a process by which individuals are born into
biological categories of female and male. This could become the social
categories of women and men through the acquisition of locally defined
attributes of femininity and masculinity. Also, in the recent years, the topic
gender, especially women, participating in the development has become prominent
in the literature, democracy and governance. The issue of gender inequality in
Nigeria is rooted in the traditional and cultural practices of the society.
These include the values and norms that are related to women’s reproductive
functions that clearly underline gender division of labour (Akanji, 1997).
The focus on gender
analysis is not biological differences between men and women, but rather on
their experiences and expectations as members of the society. Gender roles give
us insight into the issues affecting women and it is focused mainly in the
relationship of both men and women into the social and economic structure of a
society (Godson-Ibeji et al., 2015).
Gender analysis focuses on the different roles and responsibilities of women
and men and how these affect society, culture, the economy and politics.
Explicitly, gender analysis focuses on the relations between men and women
(Spieldoch, 2007).
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
In Nigeria, labour is a
major constraint in food crop production (Gocowski and Oduwole, 2003). The
availability of labour has been found to have impact on planting precision,
better weed control, timely harvesting and crop processing (Oluyole et al., 2007). The various studies on farm
labour supply and use confirm that human labour on the farm is not homogenous
and job contents differ. For instance, King (1992) found that in general, men
performed heavy operations such as land preparation while women and children
performed lighter operations such as planting, fertilizer application and
weeding. The study also confirmed that separate wage rates are obtained for
these labour categories. Several problems are associated with agriculture and
over the years agricultural production has drastically reduced (Ogundari and
Ojo, 2006).
The importance of food crop
and agricultural production to the world requires the efforts of farm labour
suppliers, but the various sources, types and utilization of farm labour for specific farm
activities by both men and women have not been fully identified. The efforts, as observed
from some researchers were apparently hindered due to some factors such as
migration, wage rate, farm income, age composition, barrier to adoption of
technology and effect of diseases on farm labour suppliers.
Also decline in labour productivity between
male and female rice farmer has been a major course of food dificency situation
which according to Tanko et al., (2006), Nigeria’s food deficient situation has been worsened
by declining farm productivity owing to inefficient production techniques, poor
resource base and insufficient farm labour supply among others. Labour has been
found to constitute a large proportion of cost in the food crop production
process in Nigeria and its productivity has become increasingly low because
farm households largely comprised fairly old people and very young children
coupled with the use of crude implements which impede their ability to raise
yield of food crops and income with subsequent reduction in poverty level.
Furthermore, the position
of men and women in meeting the challenges in agricultural development cannot
be overemphasized. Men and women make a significant contribution to food
production and to the processing of food stuff in terms of labour contribution
(Rahman et al., 2004).
Yet men and women have been facing various socio-economic obstacles (such as
difficulties in gaining access to resources as land, credit, productivity –
enhancing inputs and other services) which affect their productivity in
agricultural sector (Rahman, 2009). Rahman et al. (2004) reported that women carry the major responsibility for
both farm production and domestic works which negatively affect their labour
productivity in farm production. The absence of quantitative and qualitative
data on gender-labour productivity has contributed to the inadequate
recognition of women’s effort and insensitivity to their needs in the farming
communities (Rahman, 2006).
However, there is a dearth of information on
gender differentials with respect to labour productivity in rice production as
the rice sector in Nigeria is one of the most important remarkable agricultural
developments over the decades. Although, Nigeria is endowed with abundant
natural resources to produce more than enough rice and even export the surplus,
yet the demand outstrips domestic supply. Nigeria‘s growing rice demand
simultaneously presents a food security challenge and an economic opportunity
for the country.
More so both male and female Rice farmers
have been frustrated with the scarcity and high input costs. This has led to
farmers not using inputs such as fertilizers and other agrochemicals and those
who use them use sub-optimal proportions of the inputs resulting in low and
poor quality yields Other unattractive conditions include low technology base
(mechanization), decaying infrastructure, high interest rates, weak
institutions (such as poorly-funded research institutes, public extension
system, and seeds certification), corruption-ridden fertilizer distribution
system and low public sector investments in agriculture among male and female
farmers (Omotola and Ikechukwu, 2006). The essence of this study therefore
is Gender-based analysis of labour
utilization and productivity differentials in rice production in Enugu State Based
on this the study provides answers to the following research questions:
i.
What are the socio-economic characteristics of the male and female rice
farmers?
ii.
What are the sources, types and utilization of farm labour for specific farm activities?
iii.
What is the difference in labour productivity between male and female rice farmer?
iv.
What are the determinants of labour utilization and productivity by the
rice farmers;
v.
What is the production function and elasticity of production and returns
to scale for the male and female
rice farmers;
vi.
What are the constraints faced by farmers (male and female) in rice
production?
1.4 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The broad objective of this study is to
analyze labour utilization and
productivity differentials by gender in rice production in Enugu State, Nigeria.
The specific objectives are to:
i.
examine the socio-economic characteristics of the male and female rice
farmers;
ii.
examine the sources and utilization of farm labour for rice production the male and female rice farmers;
iii.
ascertain the labour productivity differential
between male and female rice farmer;
iv.
estimate the determinants of labour utilization and productivity by male and female rice farmers;
v.
estimate the production function and derive the elasticity of production
and returns to scale for male and female
rice farmers;
vi.
describe the various constraints faced by male and female rice farmers
in the study area.
1.5 HYPOTHESES
The following hypotheses were tested:
1: There is no
difference between the output of male and female farmers in the study area;
2: There is no difference between the labour
productivity by male and female rice farmers in the area;
3: There is no difference between the labour
utilization by male and female rice farmers in the area;
4: Farm
size, labour, capital, fertilizer use, and planting materials are positively
related to the output of the male and female rice farmers.
1.6 JUSTIFICATION FOR THE STUDY
Given the importance of farm labour supply in
the production of food crop and agricultural production, studies are generally
required to provide information that could guide the prospective food crop
farmers on those effects and factors that are likely to affect the supply of
labour use on the farm. Unavailability of technology and decreasing availability
of an energetic population who could cope with the task of farm operations has
reduced agricultural and food crop production (Qio and Datom, 2000).
This research will therefore serve as a guide
to policy makers in Enugu State. It will sharpen policy focus with a view to
improving the livelihood of the farm labour suppliers by dealing with those
factors affecting farm labour supply for food crop production. A study of this
nature would add to the existing body of knowledge. The study would help both
farmers and management of agricultural industries, ADPs to solve the problem of
labour productivity and efficiency in agriculture and other industries in the
state and nation at large. It would also help the farmers to know how to take
good care of themselves. It would bring the spirit of collective bargaining and
joint consultation in the organization and help in boosting the economy and
keep in close touch with farmers.
This research would help the Federal and
State Governments to look into the aspect of labour and increasing employment
opportunities for the people. This would help boost the economy of the Local
Government Area, the State, and the Nation at large. With the results from this
research, it would help the Federal Government to make concrete plan for the
nation.
This study would further help in bringing
into focus, the level of differences in gender labour, particularly in rice
production and also identified causes and effects of the gaps between men and
women in relation to labour productivity in farm production.
This study would be essential to understand
the nature of the constraints women face in order to effectively help women
farmers because failure to take into account gender relationships leads to the
marginalization of the disadvantaged sector of the society and a large part of
the agricultural work force It would equally provide the much needed micro
level data and the empirical basis for farm planning, policy formulation and
implementation, for no society can afford to neglect the needs, rights,
aspirations and contributions of half of its population. It would ensure
policies that would improve the productivity of male and female rice farmers as
well as information on relative access to and control over resources would be
important in the development of food security strategies. The study would also
provide a basis for equity, effective and better allocation of resources
between male and female rice farmers.
This study would add to the already existing
literature on production which may aid further researchers in other
geographical areas. It would also be useful to potential investors interested
in rice production in Enugu state. It can also provide useful information,
which would help in decision making for improvement of rice farming in Nigeria.
It is used for teaching purposes. Finally, in the developing countries where
technologies are rarely developed, efficiency is the means of improving
production and productivity. It is also important to note that women and men
have different activities and different levels of access to and control over
key factors of production in the farm households. This study will generate
baseline information on issues related to women’s activities, their relative
access to and control over resources, and the factors influencing their
activities in the sector to those who are interested to undertake any
development intervention aimed at promoting women’s contributions in the
sector. The study also seeks to contribute to the better understanding of
gender relations and gender roles in agricultural production.
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