GENDER BASED ANALYSIS OF LABOUR UTILIZATION AND PRODUCTIVITY DIFFERENTIALS IN RICE PRODUCTION IN ENUGU STATE, NIGERIA

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ABSTRACT

The study is on gender-based analysis of labour utilization and productivity differentials in rice production in Enugu State, Nigeria. Multi-stage sampling technique was employed to select 120 respondents. Primary data were collected with the use of a well-structured questionnaire through the aid of enumerators. Relevant descriptive and inferential statistics such as frequencies, percentages, means, standard deviation, Z-test and multiple regression models were used for data analysis. The result showed that mean ages were 43 and 42 years for females and males; while 70% of the female rice farmers were married and 48.33% of the male rice farmers were married. The mean household sizes were 7 and 6 persons for male and female respondents respectively while majority (100%) and (88.3%) of the respondents had formal education for both female and male rice farmers. The mean hectares cultivated were 2.18 and 2.62 for female and male farmers respectively. A combination of family labour and hired sources contributed most of the labour supplied for rice production for female (71.6%) and male (88.3%) rice farmers in the area. It is evident from the result that male rice farmers were more productive than their female counterpart. The Z-value was 8.421 significant at 1% level of probability and positively signed. Labour utilization of the male farmers was positively influenced by distance, farm size, land ownership, credit and education while labour utilization of the female farmers was positively influenced by distance, farm size, age, and credit and negatively influenced by household size and extension. Also labour productivity of the male farmers was positively influenced by distance, farm size, age and credit and negatively influence by land ownership while labour productivity of the female farmers was positively influenced by distance, farm size, age and credit and negatively influenced by land ownership. Furthermore, the estimated production function of the female rice farmers indicated that farm size, labour and planting materials were the significant variables influencing the output of the female rice farmers while farm size, labour and fertilizer were the significant variables influencing the output of the male rice farmers. From the result above the nature of the returns to scale of an average male farmer in the study area was 1.078 while female farmer in the study area was 0.725. High incidence of pests was ranked as foremost constraints limiting rice production by male farmers while lack of market, road and social facilities was ranked as foremost constraints limiting rice production by female farmers. The study therefore recommends that farmers utilize their family labour efficiently in order to reduce the hired labour that increases the cost of rice production and decreases farm revenue. Also government and stakeholders should assist farmers through timely and adequate input supply, creating effective services and enabling environment, for efficient utilization of agricultural inputs on farms, which will lead to prospect in improving the productivity of of the rice farmers.






TABLE OF CONTENTS


Title Page                     i

Declaration       ii

Certification                              iii

Dedication                  iv

Acknowledgement                                                     v

Table of contents       vi

List of Tables                                                     x

List of Figures                                       xii

Abstract                                                  xiii                                                                           

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION                                                

1.1     Background Information            1

1.2     Problem Statement                                                   5

1.3     Objectives of Study                                            8

1.4     Hypotheses of the Study                          8

1.5     Justification for the Study                    8


CHAPTER 2:  REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE               11

2.1 Conceptual Framework                                                         11

2.1.1 Gender: roles and relations                                                         12

2.1.1.1 Gender and division of labour in agricultural production         12

2.1.1.2 Gender and differential in access to factors of production         14

2.1.1.3 Gender and agricultural productivity                                           18

2.1.2     Labour measurement                                                        18

2.1.2.1 Labour productivity                           19

2.1.2.2 Labour efficiency                                                                21 

2.1.2.3 Factors impacting labour efficiency and productivity             22

2.1.2.4 Farm & family characteristics                                25 

2.1.2.5 Sources of agricultural labour                   26

2.1.2.6 Labour use in agricultural production                                27

2.1.3 Rice farming in Nigeria.                 29

2.1.3.1 Government intervention in rice production       33

2.1.3.2 Trends in Nigeria’s rice economy          36

2.1.3.3 Nigeria’s rice production systems                39    

2.1.4 Nigeria milled rice production, Nigeria milled rice imports and milled rice export 40  

2.1.5 Policy and political economy of rice production, consumption and importation        47

2.2 Theoretical Framework                                                      49    

2.3 Empirical Framework                                       64

2.4 Analytical Framework                       76


CHAPTER 3:  METHODOLOGY                                                         78

3.1 Study Area                                                                        78

3.2 Sampling Techniques                                                           79     

3.3  Data Collection                                                    80      

3.4 Data Analysis                                                                     80

3.5 Model Specification                                                       80


CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 

4.1 SOCIO-ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF RESPONDENTS           85

4.1.1 Age:                                85

4.1.2 Marital status:                                                 86

4.1.3. Household size                                                                      87

4.1.4 Level of education                                                              88

4.1.5: Farming experience                                                                 89

4.1.6     Extension agent contact:                               90

4.1.7    Farm Size:                                                             91

4.1.8     Membership of farmers’ associations                      92         

4.1.9     Access to credit                                                         93

4.2 Sources and utilization of farm labour for rice production            94

4.3 Labour productivity differential between male and female rice farmers                                           97

4.4 Determinants of labour utilization and productivity by male and female farmers          99

4.4.1 Determinants of labour utilization by male rice farmers.                                                     99

4.4.2 Determinants of labour utilization by female rice farmers.                                                  101

4.4.3 Determinants of labour productivity by male rice farmers.                                                 104

4.4.4 Determinants of labour productivity by female male rice farmers.                                            106

4.5 Production function, elasticity of production and returns to scale of the rice farmers.           108

4.5.1 Production function of female rice farmers                       108

4.5.2 Production function of male rice farmers                      110

4.5.3 Elasticity of production and returns to scale for male rice farmers.                                            111

4.5.4 Elasticity of production and returns to scale for female rice farmers                                           112

4.6 Constraints faced by male and female rice farmers                                                                   113

4.6.1 Constraints in farm labour utilization by rice farmers                                                            113

4.6.2 Constraints in rice production for rice farmers       115


CHAPTER 5: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS              118

5.1 Summary                                                                     118

5.2 Conclusion                                                                             120  

5.3 Recommendation                           121            

References                                                               122

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

LIST OF TABLES


2.1. Nigeria Milled Rice Production by Year from 1999-2013                                                        44

2.2. Nigeria Milled Rice Imports by Year from 1999-2013                                                  45

2.3. Nigeria Milled Rice Exports by Year from 1999-2013                                                               45

2.4. Nigeria Milled Rice Domestic Consumption by Year from 1999-2013                                           46

4.1. Distribution of Respondents based on Age.                                                                                85         

4.2. Distribution of Respondents based on marital status                                                              86         

4.3 Distribution of respondents based on household size                                                              87         

4.4 Distribution of respondents based on level of Education                                                        88         

4.5 Distribution of respondents based on Farming Experience                                                    89         

4.6 Distribution Respondents based on contact with extension Agents                                           90         

4.7 Distribution of respondents based on Farm Size                                                                        91

4.8: Distribution of the respondents based on membership of farmers' Association                     92         

4.9: Distribution of the Respondents Based On Access to Credit                                                 93         

4.10: Sources of Farm Labour for Rice Production in the study area.                                       94         

4.11: Utilization of Farm Labour for rice production in the study area.                                   95         

4.12: Labour productivity between male and female rice farmers                                              96         

4.13 Z-test for labour productivity differential between male and female rice farmer       98        

4.14 Estimated determinants of labour utilization by male rice farmers.                                            99         

4.15 Estimated determinants of labour utilization by female rice farmers.                                            101      

4.16 Estimated determinants of labour productivity by male rice farmers.                                           104      

4.17: Estimated determinants of labour productivity by female rice farmers.                           106

4.18 Estimated Production Functions of the female farmers                                                                      108

4.19 Estimated Production Functions of the male Farmers                                                           110      

4.20 .Overall Elasticity of Production for male rice farmers                                                            111      

4.21 .Overall Elasticity of Production for female farmers                                                                112

4.22: Constraints in farm labour utilization by rice farmers                                                            112

4.23 Constraints in rice production by rice farmers                                                                           113

4.24: Z-Test for output differential between male and female rice farmers                                           117

4.25: Z-test for labour utilization differential between male and female rice farmers      117

 






 


LIST OF FIGURE


2.1: Rice cultivation in the world. Source FAOSTAT (average of 1980–2014)                  40

 

 

 

 



 

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

The Nigerian economy has gone through many years of vicissitude, especially in the agricultural sector and this sector remains one of the pillars of Africa’s economic, social and rural development. About 70% of Africans and roughly 80% of the continent’s poor live in rural areas and depend mainly on agriculture for their livelihood (Maxwell, 2001; Kinkingninhoun-Medagbe, 2014). The rice subsector is still growing but is faced with many challenges, including biotic, abiotic, and socioeconomic constraints, with greater pressure from the socioeconomic constraints (Abdul-Gafar et al., 2016). Rice is the most important agricultural product in the world (Surakiat, et al., 2017; Muthayya et al., 2014).

Rice is the most strategic food crop in West Africa because of its contribution to food security of the populations and its impact on the economy of households and countries (Seck et al., 2013; FAO, 2013). Rice is a staple crop throughout West Africa, especially in Nigeria, Cote d’Ivoire, the Gambia, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Liberia, Burkina Faso, Senegal and Sierra Leone (Basorun, 2009). However, continued fluctuation in rice production in the country is an indication of limited capacity of the Nigeria rice economy to match the domestic demand which can be attributed to the inability of the rice farmers to obtain maximum output from the resources committed to the enterprise (Kolawole, 2010). The majority of the rice producing countries in Africa attained yield below the world average (4.3MT) from 2008 to 2014 (Abdul-Gafar et al., 2017). Some of the pivotal factors for the low yield are inadequate extension services, poor management practices, and structural obstacles (Abdul-Gafar et al., 2017).

According to the economic theory, three basic resources or factors of production, such as, land, labor and capital have been considered as assessment parameters of sustainable development (Longpichai et al., 2012). In Nigeria, labour is a major source of employment opportunity for the rural labour force and technological change is one of the major forces leading to change in employment, output and functional income distribution (Job and Adebola, 2015). Labour plays important economic and social roles in any economy. It is one of the key factors of production as well as a source of livelihood to billions of people worldwide (Schneider, 2005). Nigeria‟s agricultural production is highly labour intensive. Over 90% of non-mechanized production systems depend on human labour, and for mechanized production systems, between 50 and 60% of the tasks depend on human labour (Shaib et al., 1997; Olayide, 2002).

Human labour is one of the major sources of labour available to small-holder farmers in Nigeria. Small-holder farmers contribute over 85% of domestic agricultural output in Nigeria (Obike et al., 2017; Ikassim and Olayinka, 2012). Thus, there is the need to continue to supply food to the ever-growing Nigerian population which anchors on human labour productivity. Olukunle, (2013) noted that hired labour contributed 88.0% of the total labour-use on farms thus emphasizing its importance in agricultural activities. Other types of human labour that could be employed are family labour and exchange labour. Again, the seasonal relationship between the periodical changes in labour cost reduction, use patterns and different labour operations meant to be timely performed exert a limit to the proportion of household labour that can be depended upon (Obike et al., 2017).

The term ‘Labour Productivity’ is generally defined as “the ratio of physical amount of output achieved in a given period to the corresponding amount of labour expended” (Bloom and Humairm 2010).  It may be true that any business organization all wage payments are directly or indirectly based on the skill and productivity of the workers, therefore labour productivity is considered as the most important factors in productivity computations. A country’s capability to improve its national output growth over time depends almost entirely on the size of its labour force. This in turn propels the country’s productive capacity and hence raises productivity (Qaisar and Foreman-Peck, 2007). In Nigeria, labour productivity growth has been unsatisfactory. Indeed, there is a huge decline in GDP per worker over the years; this implies low GDP per person in the country. Nigeria’s productivity growth dividend opportunity is very significant (OECD, 2008). However, the country has several challenges to realizing such a productivity dividend (Bloom and Humairm 2010).

Gender is a concept used in social science analysis to look at the role and activities of man and women (Ogunniyi et al., 2002). Sex is a statistics and biological attribute based on natural characteristics and reproductive role while gender is a dynamic, social construction that describes feminine and masculine behavior (Doku, 1990). The word gender means more than sex. It is culturally ascribed as a role performed by either of the sexes. Aina (2002) viewed the issue of gender as a process by which individuals are born into biological categories of female and male. This could become the social categories of women and men through the acquisition of locally defined attributes of femininity and masculinity. Also, in the recent years, the topic gender, especially women, participating in the development has become prominent in the literature, democracy and governance. The issue of gender inequality in Nigeria is rooted in the traditional and cultural practices of the society. These include the values and norms that are related to women’s reproductive functions that clearly underline gender division of labour (Akanji, 1997).

The focus on gender analysis is not biological differences between men and women, but rather on their experiences and expectations as members of the society. Gender roles give us insight into the issues affecting women and it is focused mainly in the relationship of both men and women into the social and economic structure of a society (Godson-Ibeji et al., 2015). Gender analysis focuses on the different roles and responsibilities of women and men and how these affect society, culture, the economy and politics. Explicitly, gender analysis focuses on the relations between men and women (Spieldoch, 2007).

1.2  STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

In Nigeria, labour is a major constraint in food crop production (Gocowski and Oduwole, 2003). The availability of labour has been found to have impact on planting precision, better weed control, timely harvesting and crop processing (Oluyole et al., 2007). The various studies on farm labour supply and use confirm that human labour on the farm is not homogenous and job contents differ. For instance, King (1992) found that in general, men performed heavy operations such as land preparation while women and children performed lighter operations such as planting, fertilizer application and weeding. The study also confirmed that separate wage rates are obtained for these labour categories. Several problems are associated with agriculture and over the years agricultural production has drastically reduced (Ogundari and Ojo, 2006).

The importance of food crop and agricultural production to the world requires the efforts of farm labour suppliers, but the various sources, types and utilization of farm labour for specific farm activities by both men and women have not been fully identified. The efforts, as observed from some researchers were apparently hindered due to some factors such as migration, wage rate, farm income, age composition, barrier to adoption of technology and effect of diseases on farm labour suppliers.

Also decline in labour productivity between male and female rice farmer has been a major course of food dificency situation which according to Tanko et al., (2006), Nigeria’s food deficient situation has been worsened by declining farm productivity owing to inefficient production techniques, poor resource base and insufficient farm labour supply among others. Labour has been found to constitute a large proportion of cost in the food crop production process in Nigeria and its productivity has become increasingly low because farm households largely comprised fairly old people and very young children coupled with the use of crude implements which impede their ability to raise yield of food crops and income with subsequent reduction in poverty level.

Furthermore, the position of men and women in meeting the challenges in agricultural development cannot be overemphasized. Men and women make a significant contribution to food production and to the processing of food stuff in terms of labour contribution (Rahman et al., 2004). Yet men and women have been facing various socio-economic obstacles (such as difficulties in gaining access to resources as land, credit, productivity – enhancing inputs and other services) which affect their productivity in agricultural sector (Rahman, 2009). Rahman et al. (2004) reported that women carry the major responsibility for both farm production and domestic works which negatively affect their labour productivity in farm production. The absence of quantitative and qualitative data on gender-labour productivity has contributed to the inadequate recognition of women’s effort and insensitivity to their needs in the farming communities (Rahman, 2006).

However, there is a dearth of information on gender differentials with respect to labour productivity in rice production as the rice sector in Nigeria is one of the most important remarkable agricultural developments over the decades. Although, Nigeria is endowed with abundant natural resources to produce more than enough rice and even export the surplus, yet the demand outstrips domestic supply. Nigeria‘s growing rice demand simultaneously presents a food security challenge and an economic opportunity for the country.

More so both male and female Rice farmers have been frustrated with the scarcity and high input costs. This has led to farmers not using inputs such as fertilizers and other agrochemicals and those who use them use sub-optimal proportions of the inputs resulting in low and poor quality yields Other unattractive conditions include low technology base (mechanization), decaying infrastructure, high interest rates, weak institutions (such as poorly-funded research institutes, public extension system, and seeds certification), corruption-ridden fertilizer distribution system and low public sector investments in agriculture among male and female farmers (Omotola and  Ikechukwu, 2006). The essence of this study therefore is Gender-based analysis of labour utilization and productivity differentials in rice production in Enugu State Based on this the study provides answers to the following research questions:

      i.         What are the socio-economic characteristics of the male and female rice farmers?

     ii.         What are the sources, types and utilization of farm labour for specific farm activities?

   iii.         What is the difference in labour productivity between male and female rice farmer?

   iv.         What are the determinants of labour utilization and productivity by the rice farmers; 

     v.         What is the production function and elasticity of production and returns to scale for the male and female rice farmers; 

   vi.         What are the constraints faced by farmers (male and female) in rice production?


1.4 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The broad objective of this study is to analyze labour utilization and productivity differentials by gender in rice production in Enugu State, Nigeria.

The specific objectives are to:

i.               examine the socio-economic characteristics of the male and female rice farmers;

ii.              examine the sources and utilization of farm labour for rice production the male and female rice farmers;

iii.            ascertain the labour productivity differential between male and female rice farmer;

iv.            estimate the determinants of labour utilization and productivity by male and female rice farmers; 

v.              estimate the production function and derive the elasticity of production and returns to scale for male and female rice farmers; 

vi.            describe the various constraints faced by male and female rice farmers in the study area. 


1.5 HYPOTHESES

The following hypotheses were tested:

1: There is no difference between the output of male and female farmers in the study area;

2: There is no difference between the labour productivity by male and female rice farmers in the area;

3: There is no difference between the labour utilization by male and female rice farmers in the area;

4: Farm size, labour, capital, fertilizer use, and planting materials are positively related to the output of the male and female rice farmers.

1.6 JUSTIFICATION FOR THE STUDY

Given the importance of farm labour supply in the production of food crop and agricultural production, studies are generally required to provide information that could guide the prospective food crop farmers on those effects and factors that are likely to affect the supply of labour use on the farm. Unavailability of technology and decreasing availability of an energetic population who could cope with the task of farm operations has reduced agricultural and food crop production (Qio and Datom, 2000).

This research will therefore serve as a guide to policy makers in Enugu State. It will sharpen policy focus with a view to improving the livelihood of the farm labour suppliers by dealing with those factors affecting farm labour supply for food crop production. A study of this nature would add to the existing body of knowledge. The study would help both farmers and management of agricultural industries, ADPs to solve the problem of labour productivity and efficiency in agriculture and other industries in the state and nation at large. It would also help the farmers to know how to take good care of themselves. It would bring the spirit of collective bargaining and joint consultation in the organization and help in boosting the economy and keep in close touch with farmers.

This research would help the Federal and State Governments to look into the aspect of labour and increasing employment opportunities for the people. This would help boost the economy of the Local Government Area, the State, and the Nation at large. With the results from this research, it would help the Federal Government to make concrete plan for the nation.

This study would further help in bringing into focus, the level of differences in gender labour, particularly in rice production and also identified causes and effects of the gaps between men and women in relation to labour productivity in farm production.

This study would be essential to understand the nature of the constraints women face in order to effectively help women farmers because failure to take into account gender relationships leads to the marginalization of the disadvantaged sector of the society and a large part of the agricultural work force It would equally provide the much needed micro level data and the empirical basis for farm planning, policy formulation and implementation, for no society can afford to neglect the needs, rights, aspirations and contributions of half of its population. It would ensure policies that would improve the productivity of male and female rice farmers as well as information on relative access to and control over resources would be important in the development of food security strategies. The study would also provide a basis for equity, effective and better allocation of resources between male and female rice farmers.

This study would add to the already existing literature on production which may aid further researchers in other geographical areas. It would also be useful to potential investors interested in rice production in Enugu state. It can also provide useful information, which would help in decision making for improvement of rice farming in Nigeria. It is used for teaching purposes. Finally, in the developing countries where technologies are rarely developed, efficiency is the means of improving production and productivity. It is also important to note that women and men have different activities and different levels of access to and control over key factors of production in the farm households. This study will generate baseline information on issues related to women’s activities, their relative access to and control over resources, and the factors influencing their activities in the sector to those who are interested to undertake any development intervention aimed at promoting women’s contributions in the sector. The study also seeks to contribute to the better understanding of gender relations and gender roles in agricultural production.

 

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