ABSTRACT
This research work is an attempt to examine gender differentials and market participation among cassava value chain actors in Southeast Nigeria. The specific objectives were to map out the cassava value chain and the roles of actors by gender in the study area; examine the socioeconomic characteristics of male and female actors in the chain; ascertain the level of gender participation and segmentation in the formal and informal markets along the chain; determine by gender value added and share of value added in the formal and informal markets along the chain; estimate by gender the socioeconomic factors affecting value addition in the formal and informal markets along the chain, determine by gender the factors influencing the level of participation in the formal and informal markets along the chain, and describe by gender the constraints to actor’s participation in the formal and informal markets along the chain. A multi-stage sampling technique was used in the selection of 432 respondents comprising male and female cassava producers, processors and marketers operating in the formal and informal markets. Data were analyzed using simple descriptive statistics and inferential statistical tools. Most of the male and female cassava actors along the chain were relatively young but not in their active age. Majority of the actors in the formal and informal market along the chain were married couples with an average family size of 7 persons. The male in the formal market along the chain had more years of experience and much farm size than their female counterparts. The female formal actors were more educated than their counterparts in the informal markets. On gender segmentation, the result shows that more male than female participated in the formal and informal market. On value addition the formal producers, processors and marketers added more value than their informal counterparts, also the males added more value than the females in both markets. The regression estimation of factors influencing the value addition by all the actors in the formal and informal markets show that the determinants of value addition by the producers in the formal market were age, household size, farming, experience and capital input. The processors in the formal market, the coefficients of education, processing experience, technology used and cost of cassava roots were the significant variables but in the informal market, the coefficients of educational level, labour costs, technology used and gender were the significant variables. For marketers, the result reveals that the coefficients of marketing experience, household size and gender were significant in the formal market. In the informal market, the coefficients of cost of storage and quantity of gari purchased, quantity of gari sold and membership of cooperative society were equally significant variable. Based on the findings of the study, it was recommended that the government and private organizations should encourage young people and women in cassava value chain through provision of access to input, land facilities, good road, improved technologies, and marketing facilities to reduce drudgery and improve income and food security in the study area.
TABLE
OF CONTENTS
Title
Page i
Declaration ii
Certification
iii
Dedication iv
Acknowledgment v
Table
of contents vi
List
of Tables x
List
of Figures xi
Abstract
xii
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1
Background information 1
1.2 Statement
of the problem 5
1.3 Research questions 7
1.4 Objectives of the study 8
1.5 Hypotheses
of the study 9
1.6 Justification
for the study 10
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE
REVIEW 11
2.1 Conceptual framework 11
2.1.1 The concept of gender 11
2.1.2 The concepts of formal
and informal markets 13
2.1.3. Concept of cassava
value chain market participation and its importance 16
2.1.4 Concept
of value chain in agricultural production 18
2.1.5. Concept
of cassava value chain in Nigeria 22
2.1.6 Value chain analysis and gender relations 27
2.1.7 Value chain and gender analysis 31
2.2 Theoretical framework 35
2.2.1 Feminist theories 35
2.2.1.1 Social construction feminism theory 36
2.2.1.2 Feminist ethics of care theory 37
2.2.2 Theories
of value chain analysis 39
2.2.3 The
French filiere theory and approach 40
2.3 Empirical
framework 43
2.3.1 Empirical
evidence on cassava value chain mapping 43
2.3.2 Empirical
evidence on socioeconomic
factors influencing market participation 45
2.3.3
Empirical evidence on gender
participation in agriculture value chain 50
2.3.4 Empirical evidence on
value added and its determinants in cassava value chain 52
2.3.5 Empirical evidence on constraints to actor’s participation
in the formal and 54
informal markets
2.4 Analytical
framework 56
2.4.1 Calculation of value added 56
2.4.2
Market
participation index 59
2.4.3 Multivariate
linear regression 59
2.4.4 Tobit regression model 60
CHAPTER
3: METHODOLOGY 62
3.1 Study
area 62
3.2 Sampling
techniques 64
3.3 Data
collection 65
3.4 Data
analysis 66
3.4.1 Cassava
value chain mapping 66
3.4.2 Level of gender
participation and segmentation in the formal and informal
markets along the
chain 67
3.4.3.1 Budgeting technique 68
3.4.3.2 Value added and share of value added in the
formal and informal market
along the chain by gender 68
3.4.4 Estimation of factors
influencing value added in the formal and informal market
along
the chain by gender 69
3.4.5 Factors influencing the level of
participation in the formal and informal markets by
male and female
actors in the chain 71
3.4.6 Constraints to actor’s participation in the formal and
informal markets along
the chain 73
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND
DISCUSSION 76
4.1 Cassava value chain map and roles of actors by gender 76
4.1.1 Mapping
cassava value chain actors by gender in the formal and
informal markets 76
4.1.2 Cassava
value chain actors and their roles 77
4.1.2.1
Roles of input suppliers 78
4.1.2.2 Roles of cassava
producers 78
4.1.2.3 Role of cassava processors 79
4.1.2.4 Role of gari marketers 79
4.1.2.5 Roles of the consumers 80
4.2 Socio economic and demography characteristics of
the respondents 80
4.2.1: Age of the respondents 80
4.2.2: Marital
status of the actors 83
4.2.3: Household size of the actors 84
4.2.4: Educational attainment 85
4.2.5:
Years of experience in production, processing and marketing 86
4.2.6:
Farm size of the respondents (production node) 87
4.2.7:
Cooperative membership 88
4.2.8: Access to credit 89
4.2.9
Tenure system practiced by the farmers 89
4.2.10
Variety of cassava used by the farmers 90
4.2.11 Source of cassava stem by the farmers 90
4.2.12 Cropping systems used by the farmers 91
4.3 Level of gender participation and segmentation in the formal
and
informal
markets among the cassava value chain actors. 91
4.3.1 Level of gender participation by actors in the
formal market along the chain 91
4.3.2 Level of gender
participation by cassava actors in the informal market 94
4.3.3 Gender segmentation in the formal and
informal market along the chains 95
4.2.3.1:
Frequency distribution of gender segmentation among cassava value
chain actors 95
4.3.1.2 Gender
segmentation in the formal market along the cassava value chain 96
4.1.3.3 Gender segmentation in the informal market
along the cassava value chain 97
4.4 Cost,
return and value added by actors in the formal and informal markets
along the chain by gender 98
4.4.1 Value
added and share of value added in cassava production 99
4.4.2 Value
added by cassava processors (gari) in
the formal and informal 101
markets by gender
4.4.3 Marketing
cost and value added by gari
marketers in the formal and informal
markets by gender 102
4.5 Estimation of factors influencing cassava value addition in
the
formal and
informal markets by the actors 104
4.5.1: Estimation of factors
influencing cassava value addition in the formal and informal
markets by the producers 104
4.5.2 Estimation of factors influencing cassava value addition by
processors in
the
formal and informal markets 107
4.5.3 Estimation of factors influencing cassava value addition by
marketers at the
formal and
informal markets 110
4.5.4 Test of significant differences between value
added in formal and informal
markets among male and female actors 113
4.5.4.1 Significant differences between value
added at formal markets among
male
and female cassava value chain actors. 113
4.5.4.2 Significant differences between value added at
informal markets among
male
and female actors 114
4.6: Factors influencing the level of actors’ participation in the
formal and
informal markets
along the chain 115
4.6.1 Tobit
regression result on factors influencing the level of participation in the
formal market 115
4.6.2 Tobit regression
result of factors influencing the level of participation in the
informal market 120
4.7 Constraints
to cassava value chain actors’ participation in the market by
gender. 124
4.7.1 Constraints to male and female cassava
producers’ participation in the market. 124
4.7.2: Constraints to male and female cassava
processor’s participation in the formal
and informal market by
gender. 125
4.7.3: Constraints to male and female cassava
marketer’s participation in the market 127
CHAPTER
5: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND
RECOMMENDATIONS 129
5.1 Summary 129
5.2 Conclusion 143
5.3 Recommendations 143
5.4 Contribution of the study
to knowledge 146
5.5 Suggestion
for further study 147
References
Appendix
LIST
OF TABLES
3.1 Sampling
procedure 65
4.1
Average socioeconomics
characteristics of the cassava value chain actors
by
gender 81
4.2 The
levels of gender participation among cassava value chain actors in
the
formal market 92
4.3 Level of gender participation in the
informal market along the chain 94
4.4 Value added by cassava producers in the
formal and informal market 100
4.5 Value added by gari processors in the formal and informal markets by gender. 102
4.6 Marketing cost and value added by gari marketers in the formal and
informal
markets.
103
4.7 Regression estimates of factors influencing
cassava value addition among
producers 105
4.8: Regression estimate of the determinants of
value added by processors in the markets.
4.9 Regression estimate of the determinants of
value added by marketers. 112
4.10 Significant
differences between value added in the formal market by male
and
female actor 114
4.11 Test
of significant differences between value added in the informal market
by
male and female actors 115
4.12
Tobit estimates for factors influencing
the level of participation by the
chain
actors in formal market. 117
4.13
Tobit model estimate for factors
influencing the level of participation by the
actors in the informal market. 121
4.14
Mean distribution of constraints
to cassava producers’ participation in the
by
gender 125
4 .15:
Mean distribution of constraints to male and female processor’s
participation
in the formal market. 126
4
.16 Mean distribution of constraints to
cassava marketer’s participation in
the
market by gender 127
LIST
OF FIGURES
2.1 Six stages of a value chain 21
2.2 Cassava value chain and value chain
actors 26
2.3 The value chain system (modified from USAID,
2006) 30
2.4 Cassava
value chain map in Southeast Nigeria 45
3.1 Map of Nigeria showing Southeast 63
4.1
Cassava value chain map in the forma land informal markets in
Southeast Nigeria.
77
4.2 Frequency
distribution of gender segmentation among cassava
value
chain actors 95
4.3
Gender
activity and segmentation across the cassava value chain in
the formal
market 97
4.4 Frequency distribution of gender
activity and segmentation across the
cassava value
chain in the informal market 98
CHAPTER
1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND
INFORMATION
Gender differentials arise from
gender disparities in time-use, responsibilities and power, differences in
advancement and dealings of men and women, based on moral convictions of
suitable gender roles and individual ability .(Muñoz Boutdet, Pettesch, Turk, and
Thumala (2012). Gender is used to describe cultural norms or socially
constructed roles, rights, and responsibilities of women and men, and the relations
between them (Beuchelt and Badstue, 2013). These roles and characteristics are
acquired through socialization processes where people are born female or male,
but learn to behave like women or men (FAO, 2014). Gender defines who does
which type of activity, who manages a good or resource, takes decision, and has
power (UNICEF, 2011). This relates directly to men’s and women’s roles and
responsibilities and decisions about resource allocation or adoption of
technologies along agricultural value chains (Kiptot and Franzel, 2011).
The value chain concept relates to the idea of actors
connected along a chain producing and delivering goods to consumers through a
series of activities (Henriksen, Riisgaard, Ponte, Hartwich
and Kormawa, 2010). Value chains offer tremendous
opportunities for men and women through better market linkages (Matua, Njuki and Waithanji, (2014).
The value chain of a product describes the full range
of activities which are required to bring a product or services from
conception, through the different actors involved in the production,
processing, and delivery to the final consumers (Adekunle, 2012).
World Bank,(2007) defined value chain analysis as a method of accounting
and presenting the value that is created in a product or service as it is
transformed from raw inputs to a final product consumed by end users..
A
value-chain analysis systematically maps the actors participating in the
production, distribution, processing, marketing and consumption of a particular
product or service. This mapping evaluates the characteristics of the
participants, profit and cost structures they have, and flow of goods
throughout the chain, employment characteristics, and the destination and
quantity of sales (Gebre,
2015).
In southeast Nigeria, cassava value
chain has a lot of significant processes (Ahmadu and Idisi, 2014). Cassava
(Manihot esculenta Crantz), a root crop and source of food security in
Africa because of its ability to grow in poor soils, its capacity to resist
drought and disease, and its short cultivation cycle (Meridian Institute,
2013). Cassava is commonly labeled a women’s crop due to its role in household
food supply, which is often the task of women (Forsythe, Posthumus and Martin,
2016), and because women
dominate in most of the activities like planting, weeding and harvesting of the
crop (Ezeibe, Edafiogho, Okonkwo and Okide, 2015). Cassava is grown
throughout the year, making it preferable to yam (HarvestPlus, 2014). Cassava
is among the major staple food crops in Nigeria with wide range of industrial
and commercial uses (NBS, 2013). Cassava can be used to produce garri, fufu, tapioca, flour,
etc. Fufu and
lafun have value chains
very similar to that of gari, except that they require additional
processing (Kambewa and Nyembe, 2008).
Men
and women perform different activities in cassava production and processing.
Majority of the female farmers are credited for production and processing (Osuji,
Mejeha, Nwaru, Nwankwo and Nwaiwu, 2017). Amanze, Ohaka, and Nwachukwu, (2017),
argued that cassava processing is the task of rural women in Nigeria, although
most of the mechanized equipment such as graters and grinders used by the women
in processing are owned and operated by men. Women play significant roles in production
and post-ETALharvest processing that are often the basic determinants of the
size and quality of the final commodities produced (International Finance
Corporation, 2016). The right to use productive resources such as credit,
improved technology, and access to land, improved varieties, and improved
methods of processing, storage and organized marketing is central to
understanding rural women and men’s opportunities for economic advancement
(FAO, 2016).
FAO (2012) reported that women face unequal right
to obtain and control productive resources and opportunities. The
distinctive factors generally include land constraints like small land size in
terms of unequal land tenure systems and property right, inadequate access to
advisory and extension services, low stocks of human and non- human assets and
elimination from credit and financial markets (Ali, Bowen, Deininger, and
Duponchel (2015) Access to technology, information, and agricultural extension
tends to be more limited compared to men (Bravo-Monroy etal, 2016 and Okoye, Onyenweaku, and Ukoha (2010).
Unequal gender power relations and the allocation of different jobs to
women and men often mean that women face differential access to markets (OECD,
2006).
The market is a process, motivated by the interaction
of the actions of the various individual under the working together under
division of labour. A market can be
formal or informal; however market involvement or participation can be described
as to the extent by which a household participates in the market as a seller
(Berhanu and Moti, 2012). Agricultural market participation refers to the
integration of farmers into the input and output markets of agricultural
products with a view to increasing their income levels, (Ehui and Holloway,
2002). It is the process by which cassava value chain actors have the
opportunity to become actively involved in the market process. Participation in
formal or informal market is essential to drive much needed agricultural reform
and to contribute to income growth in rural areas (Mthembu, 2008). Formal
markets refer to reliable (contract arrangement) and lucrative (profitable)
markets or the high value markets. It is a well organized and planned market
for the purpose of making much profit. Baloyi (2010) listed fresh produce
markets, Shoprite, supermarkets and agro-processors as formal markets. One
problem associated with formal market is that it is difficult to access because
of the challenges that actors face (Boughton, Mather, Barrett, Benfica, Abdula, , Tschirley, Cunguara., 2006).
Informal markets contrarily refer to markets where
there are no involvements of any organized arrangement (contract) for a sale of
goods. Informal market involves selling to hawkers, selling from stalls in
small markets and on the streets, (Department of Agriculture, DoA 2003). This
marketing may range from wholesaling, retailing or selling directly to the
consumer.
One consequence
of gender-differentiated market participation in the cassava value chain activities is that women seeking to improve
their economic standing through cassava production may have limited
opportunities to do so because of gender discrimination (Meridian Institute,
2013).
Market participation of men and women is subjective to
the bargaining power of individuals. Bargaining power is the ability and
capacity of household members to obtain and control resources, and make choice,
to manipulate and have power over others based on individual interests (Doss,
2011). The inability of women to bargain
wisely affects women’s participation in the formal market (Wiggins, 2012) or their
poor market position such as the inability to command fair prices when compared
to men (Handschuch and Wollni, 2015). Value
addition involves processing (which can involve just cleaning, grading, or
labeling), the products after which the end user is willing to pay higher price
for the product greater than the value of the inputs consumed in the process.
In a free market economy, this value addition is typically manifested by the
processor earning a profit (Staatz, 2011). Value added at various nodes of production,
wholesaling and retailing involves costs and profits, and farmers contribute a
much higher share of the total value added than the wholesalers and retailers,
but the proportion of profits share earned is considerably much smaller for
farmers (Mushi and Kundi, 2016).
Many constraints exist in each step of the cassava value chain in agricultural
production (Meridian Institute 2013), which affects the share of value added by
the actors in cassava chain production. In Nigeria, eighty percent of the
country’s cassava is grown by smallholders who sell only their small surpluses
(Oyebanji, Oboh and Omueti, 2010). Considering the prevailing constraints, the
focus of a study such as this to assess gender participation in the formal and
informal markets and judiciously examine the differentials in roles and
responsibilities of actors in the cassava value chain.
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
The
participation of men and female cassava value chain actors in the formal and in
the open markets enhances the potential
that unfolds economic opportunities that improves the value added along the
chain. The terms upon which the actors enter and participate in formal or
informal markets are sometimes inequitable (Osmani and Hossain, 2015). Women in
agricultural production chains are excluded from transportation of goods to the
market or from marketing or sales roles of goods, even when women are the main
producers of these goods (International Finance Corporation, 2016). This is as
a result of lack of time due to the numerous daily domestic and child care task
which often hinder their moving outside their homes as noted by Munonye,
(2009). Also World Bank Report (2007) attributed this to women’s lack of
adequate income, limited skills, limited access to education and training, low
access to markets and market information. Lack of access to market and poor
market information prevalent in Southeast always result in production and
processing activities not well organized in line with consumer demand for
cassava roots and processed-products.
Cassava in sub-Saharan Africa, Nigeria inclusive, is
considered a poverty fighter and a source of income and food as reported by
(NEPAD, 2004). Thus, cassava has been the focus of many market-led development
initiatives, such as the Pan-African Cassava Initiative (PACI) launched by
NEPAD and IITA in 2004; the Cassava: Adding Value for Africa project; and the
Regional Cassava Processing and Marketing Initiative (RCPMI) with IFAD in West
Africa among others. All these
initiatives have worked and is still working to promote and uphold cassava
development in different ways, as well as other activities to support increase
in production and processing ability, from improving the agricultural inputs
such as improved cassava varieties to the growth and expansion of new products
to enhance market demand, and strategy guidelines to support growth in cassava
commercial opportunities and value chains (Forsythe, Posthumus and Martin,
2016). Despite these initiatives, the practices, policies and programmes in
cassava value chain are gender blind in
market participation and do not consider women’s unique needs and knowledge;
unequal rights and responsibilities between men and women or limited
participation of women in decision-making processes (World Bank, 2009).
Many
cassava value chain interventions such as Pan-African Cassava Initiative and
the Regional Cassava Processing and Marketing Initiative focused on equality in
training, employment and equity in access to productive resources; but little
or no intervention was centered on identifying the market choice (formal and
informal markets) that increases the value added by these value chain actors,
and ensure equal participation of male and female actors in the formal and informal
markets. Market participation requires more than receiving the right incentives
(such as “getting prices right”) but as a precondition needed to obtain
technologies, assets and public goods (infrastructure, agricultural extension)
in order to produce marketable surpluses (Marenya, Kassie, Jaleta and Rahut, 2015), and in turn ensures product
upgrade down the value chain. Unfortunately, studies such as Osuji, Mejeha,
Nwaru,; Nwankwo, and
Nwaiwu, ( 2017), Apata, (2013) and McNulty and Oparinde, (2015) on cassava value chain
operations still lack facts on the socioeconomic factors that control the
decisions of all the participant actors
in cassava value chain to participate in either formal or open markets. This resolution to participate in
formal or informal market not only affects value added by these actors, but
determines the worth of the end products each actor sells along the chain. Therefore there is a dearth of information on
gender differentials generally, or with respect to formal and informal market
participation among cassava value actors in southeast Nigeria.
1.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
- Who are the chief
actors of cassava value chain, their activities and gender?
- What is the
socioeconomic status of the male and female actors in the chain?
- What is the level of
gender participation and segmentation of the actors in the formal and
informal markets along the chain?
- What are the costs incurred and value-added
by the actors in formal and informal market along the chain by gender?
- What are the factors
affecting value addition by actors in formal and informal markets along
the chain?
- What are the
socioeconomic factors influencing the level of participation by actors in
formal and informal markets along the chain?
- What are the
constraints to actors’ participation in the formal and informal markets
along the chains?
1.4 OBJECTIVES
OF THE STUDY
The
broad objective of the study was to analyze gender
differentials and market participation among cassava value chain actors in
Southeast, Nigeria. The specific objectives were to;
i.
map value chain of cassava and the roles of actors by gender in the
study area;
ii.
describe
the socioeconomic status of the male and female actors in the chain;
iii.
ascertain
the level of gender participation and segmentation in the various markets along the chain;
iv.
estimate
by gender the costs, margins and value added and the share of value added in
the formal and markets along the chain;
v.
estimate
the factors affecting value addition in the formal and informal
markets along the chain;
vi.
identify
by gender socio-economic factors influencing the level of participation in the
markets along the chain; and
vii.
describe
by gender the constraints to actors’ participation in the markets along the
chain.
1.5 HYPOTHESES
OF THE STUDY
The hypotheses tested are;
1: For objective four, there
was no significant difference by gender in value added along various cassava
value chain in the formal and informal markets.
2 : For objective three, level of gender participation in the
chain value of cassava by gender is
positively related to education of actors, experience, access to credit,
cooperative membership, extension visits and price per output and inversely related to age of actors,
household size, (formal and informal), transportation /transaction cost and
cost of intermediate products.
3: Value
added in cassava production by gender is positively related to education of the
farmers, farm size, extension services, farming experience and involvement with
farmers’ association and inversely related to farmers’ age, cost of fertilizer and
chemicals, cost of labour, and capital inputs.
4: Value added in cassava processing by
gender is directly related to level of education, processing experience,
gender, technology used and marital status and inversely related to household
size, labour cost, extraction cost, depreciation on tools, cost of cassava
roots, processing period and other costs.
5: Value added in cassava products marketing
in the two markets by gender is positively related to level of education,
quantity of products sold, cooperative membership and marketing experience and
inversely related to age of marketers, household size, distance to nearest
market, transportation cost and storage cost.
1.6 JUSTIFICATION
FOR THE STUDY
Participation of value chain actors of cassava in
different market situations contribute substantially to rural income growth.
Understanding the role and responsibilities of actors and the value chain map
in general is important as it clearly shows the various opportunities available
to actors in the chain value. An
understanding of the ways a well functioning value chain can help to provide
the way to successfully connect production actions to market demand and supply activities, and to help promote agricultural
value chain development especially value chain of cassava in South eastern Nigeria will improve policy making.
There
is need to ascertain the gender participation in the various markets and ensure
good implementation of policies and investments in that would allow value chain
actors to enter formal and informal markets and promote long-term development.
This study will trigger intervention
programmes that are gender sensitive, and compensate for gender imbalances,
aiming to explicitly promote equal gender empowerment and disorder existing
power dynamics as suggested by Le Masson (2016). In
addition, this study will provide information on socioeconomic factors
influencing the decision of cassava value chain actors to sell in the markets.
Determining
the socio-economic factors that affect market participation will provide
empirical evidence to scholars and stakeholders in cassava value chain,
extension service providers, government and development partners, and in turn
provide basis for policy makers in formulating policies that will ensure equal
gender participation in the various markets.
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