ABSTRACT
The broad objective of this study was to determine the implications of gender differentials in the adoption of risk management practices (RMP) on food security and poverty reduction in Abia state, Nigeria. Multi-stage sampling procedure was adopted in selecting 160 farmers (80 male and 80 female cassava farmers respectively). Primary data used for this study were collected using a structured questionnaire. Data analysis involved the use of descriptive and inferential statistics like mean, tables and frequencies, z-test, Foster-Greer and Thorbecke (FGT) and Tobit model. The result shows that the male and female farmers were in their productive age with a mean age of 55 and 49 years old respectively. Majority of them were married accounting for about 40% and 65% of male farmers (MF) and female farmers (FF) respectively. The finding shows that 53% and 55% of male and female-farmers completed their secondary education, and with a mean of farming experience of 18 and 15 years for both farmers. Finding also shows that MF were high adopters of (RMP) than the FF accounting for the 56% and 50% respectively. The poverty status result shows that MF had higher Mean per capita expenditure (MPCE) of N3, 726.275 while FF had N2, 981.316. The result also shows that more MF were non-poor (40%) compared to the FF (34%). Using the recommended daily energy level (L) of 1800 Kcal, the food insecurity line (Z) was estimated at 271.19, 222.17 and 246.68 for the MF, FF and pooled farmers respectively. The Tobit result shows that level of RMP adoption, quantity of cassava output, access to credit, farming experience, annual non-farm income, farm size, and cooperative membership were positively related to poverty at 5%, 5%, 5%, 10%, 5%, 5%, 10%, 5%, 1%, and 1% significant levels for MF and FF. respectively. On the contrary, age, education and household size were negatively signed and significant at 1%, 5%, 5%, 10%, and 10% for Male and Female cassava farmers in the study area. More so, education, asset ownership, farm size, livestock ownership, improved seeds, non-farm diversification, credit access, extension contact, and farming experience were positively related to food security at 10%, 5% 5%,5%, 10%,1%, 1%, 1%, 1%, 5%, 10%, 1%,5%,1%, 5%, and 10% significant levels for MF. and FF. respectively. While age, level of RMP. adoption, and household size were negatively related to food security at different rates or levels of significant for both male and female farmers respectively. The major constraints militating against the adoption of RMP in the study area were insufficient capital, non-availability of planting materials, low knowledge of the RMP lack of extension workshops and high cost of labour. There is the need that credit facilities with very minimal stringent conditions should be provided, diversification of enterprise is of paramount important for managing agricultural risks, and extension training should be organised to enable farmers get access to information as regards to modern technologies. Investment in irrigation projects by the government should be given adequate attention to enable farmers produce optimally.
TABLE
OF CONTENTS
Title
i
Declaration
ii
Certification
iii
Dedication
iv
Acknowledgement
v
Table
of Content
vi
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1
Background of Study
1
1
.2 Problem Statement 5
1.3
Objectives of the Study
7
1.4
Hypotheses 8
1.5
Justification of the Study
8
CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF RELATED
LITERATURE
2.1.
Conceptual Literature
10
2.1.1
Gender analysis
10
2.1.2
Gender and agriculture 11
2.1.3
Gender roles in cassava production 13
2.1.4
Risk concept and analysis
13
2.1.5
Risks in agriculture
16
2.1.6
Risk management in agriculture
21
2.1.7
Different risk management practices
22
2.1.8
Effects of risk on agricultural production 27
2.1.9
Poverty profile of farmer 29
2.1.10
Measurement of poverty status 30
2.1.11
Food security 31
2.1.12
Determinant of food security in Nigeria 31
2.1.13
Measurement of food security 31
2.1.14
Elements of food security 32
2.2 Theoretical Framework 35
2.2.1
Theory of risk and risk management 35
2.2.2
Theory on adoption 36
2.2.3
Theory of food security
37
2.3
Empirical Review 38
2.4
Analytical Framework 42
2.4.1
Tobit regression model 42
2.4.2
Z-Statistics
42
CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY
3.1
The Study Area 44
3.2
Sampling Procedure 45
3.3
Data Collection 47
3.4
Analytical Technique 47
3.5
Model Specification 47
CHAPTER
4
4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 53
4.1 Socioeconomic Characteristics of Respondents 53
4.2 Sources of Risk and Management Practices Adopted 57
4.2.1 Sources of risk encountered in cassava
production 57
4.2.2 Risk management practices adopted by the
farmers 60
4.3 Level of Adoption of Risk
Management Practices (RMP)
62
4.4
Poverty Status and Food Security Status of the Farmers 63
4.4.1 Poverty status of the respondents 63
4.4.2
Food security status of the respondents
64
4.5
Influence of the RMP on the Poverty/ Food Security Status of Farmers by Gender
4.5.1
Influence of the RMP on the poverty status 65
4.5.2
Influence of the RMP on the food security status
72
4.6
Test of Significant Differences
80
4.7
Constraints to Adoption of Risk Management Practices
81
Chapter 5
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Summary 83
5.2 Conclusion 85
5.3
Recommendations 85
References 87
Appendix
107
LIST OF TABLES
4.1 Socio-Economic Characteristic of Farmers 54
4.2 Sources of Risk encountered by Farmers in
Cassava Production 58
4.3 Risk Management
Practices Adopted by Gender 60
4.4 Levels of adoption of
RMP by Farmers 62
4.5 Poverty Profile of
Farmers based on Gender 63
4.6 Summary Statistics of
Farmers’ Food Insecurity Indices 64
4.7 Influence
of the RMP on the Poverty Status of Cassava Farmers by Gender 66
4.8 Influence of the
RMP on the Food Security Status of farmers by Gender 73
4.9 Paired Samples Statistics 80
4.10 Constraints to
Adoption of RMP in Cassava Production by Gender
81
LIST
OF FIGURES
Fig
1. Schematic Diagram showing Sampling Technique 47
CHAPTER
1
INTRODUCTION
1.1
BACKGROUND OF STUDY
Agricultural production is subject to many
risks. Farm production decision plans are typically associated with multiple
potential outcomes with different probabilities. Agricultural producers face
many risks in their economic activity due mainly to weather conditions, plant
or animal diseases, price instability, and policies such as agricultural trade
liberalization and restrictions on the use of crop protection products (World
Bank, 2005). Farmers in sub-Saharan African countries face a multitude of risks
of varying severity that originates from the natural, economic and
socio-political environments (David, 2013).
Farmers live with risk and make decisions every day that affect their
farming operations. Many of the factors
that affect the farmers’ decisions cannot be predicted with a hundred per cent
accuracy.
Several risks confront farm households in
developing countries and if unabated will lead to serious consequences. Warming
temperatures, droughts, floods, increasing land degradation, loss of
biodiversity, rising food prices, zooming energy demand and population
explosion are creating extreme challenges to feed the world (Dercon, 2002;
World Bank, 2009). In the views of Boko et al, (2007) and Case (2006), these
risks will have profound impacts on key development sectors such as
agriculture, water, energy, transport, and health. Risk plays an important role in farmer
decision making and therefore affects agricultural productivity and thus growth
and development. Climatic risk is a particularly relevant concern in
agricultural production. According to IFAD (2009) and FAO (2008), these risks
have impacts on food security and livelihoods of smallholder farmers in developing
nations primarily via crop, fodder and biomass losses. Boko et al, (2007) projected that by 2020
yields from Africa’s rain-fed agriculture could be reduced by up to 50% because
of changes in climate variables. Risk is pervasive and complex, especially in
agricultural production in Africa; farmers confront the incidence of pest and
disease, excessive weed infestation, crop failure, drought, pilfering and
incidence of human disease, unstable input prices and radical changes in
production technology are inherent in their farming operations. These affect
the fluctuation in farm profitability from season to season and from one year
to another (Dismukes, 2005).
The sources of risk and level of its
severity can vary according to the farming systems, geographic location,
weather conditions, supporting government policies and farm types (World Bank,
2000). Risk is a major concern in developing countries where farmers have
imperfect information to forecast things such as farm input prices, product
prices, and weather conditions, that might impact the farms in the future
(Isik, 2002). In West Africa, almost every rural household manages farmland and
is exposed to the risk of unpredictable rainfall (Karlan, et al. 2014). In Nigeria the menace of flooding occasioned by heavy
rainfall cannot be over emphasised. For instance, Nwaobiala and Nwosu (2014)
opined that agriculture being one of the most weather-dependent human venture
suffer due to its vulnerability to climate change. Watson and Robinson (2003) further observed that African
countries are particularly vulnerable to the incidence of climate given their
dependence on rain-fed agriculture.
FAO (2009) and Building Nigeria’s Response
to Climate Change (BNRCC) (2012) have
all alluded to the positive and negative effects of climate to include extended
growing season, enhanced livestock production, constraint to primary and
secondary productivity and crop failure. Also, Gichere et al. (2013) noted that in sub- Saharan Africa, droughts and
floods are two extreme climatic events that adversely affect the agricultural
sector, and by extension affect the household food consumption. IPCC (2014)
reported that for major crops in tropical and temperate regions, climate change
without adaptation is projected to negatively impact on production. The report
further hinted that climate-change impacts are expected to exacerbate poverty
in most developing countries and create new poverty pockets in countries with
increasing inequality in both developed and developing countries.
Gender
issues ramify into virtually every aspect of human endeavour and agricultural
production is not an exception. Even in developed countries where mechanised
farming is greatly practiced, gender disparity manifests in the marketing,
processing, and picking of fruits, nuts and seeds. Gender disparity is more
extant in rural income generating activities in developing counties where
culture appears to dictate every action taken by the individual in their
development efforts.
Men
and women have performed many and different gender roles in different farm
enterprises either as planners, or owner, hired processors, or traders.
However, within the farm household men and women are found to specialize in
different tasks. Men worked predominantly on land clearing and ploughing while,
women tend to concentrate their agricultural activities around the home-stead
primarily because of their domestic and reproductive roles (Ekong, 2003). Women
make a significant contribution to food production; they provide 60-80% of
agricultural labour and are responsible for 80% of food production. Nearly all the
tasks connected with food production and agro- industry activities are
performed by rural women farmers (Mgbada, 2002; Nwaru, 2003; Osondu and Obike,
2015). African women undertake about 80
per cent of the work in food storage and transportation, 90 per cent of the
work of hoeing and weeding, and 60 per cent of the work in harvesting and
marketing Quisumbing and Kumar (2010). In Nigeria women are very much involved
in agricultural practices especially in the area of cassava production. Dionco
(2000) and Nweke and Tollens (2002), reported that almost all food crops
processing enterprises like cassava, yam, potatoes, and cash crops like palm
oil, palm kernel oil processing are being operated by women in many rural areas
in Nigeria and several developing countries, women play a crucial role in
providing and improving household food security.
Nigeria
is currently the largest producer of cassava in the world with an annual output
of over 34 million tons of tuberous roots Miriam & Helen (2013).Cassava
supplies the bulk of energy intake in Nigeria and can be processed into many
different forms. Roots can be eaten raw or boiled, processed into granulated
flour used to make “garri” or “fufu” pastes, or processed to produce vital raw
materials such as adhesives, alcohol, and starch, which are useful in the
livestock, feed, alcohol/ethanol, textile, confectionery, food and soft drinks
industries (Philips et al., 2004). In
addition to providing food for consumption and employment to rural youths,
cassava products can be exported to generate more foreign earnings. Cassava
is once seen as the food for the poor,
but due to its value addition it is therefore a food for all. These and other
features endowed it with a special capacity to bridge the gap in food security,
poverty alleviation and environmental protection (Clair and Etukudo, 2000).
Among all the products of cassava, garri is the most popular derivative as it
has a longer shelf-life. Cassava is also used as animal feed. About 10% of
Nigeria’s industrial demand consists of high quality cassava flour (HQCF) used
in biscuits and confectioneries, dextrin pre-gelled starch for adhesives,
starch and chips, pellets are primary products which are obtained directly from
raw cassava roots. Today, cassava ranks highly as a major staple food particularly
for the low income earners and resource poor farm households in developing
economies of sub-Saharan Africa (FAO, 2005). Ebukiba (2010) argued that the
special features of cassava endowed it with a special capacity to bridge the
gap in food security, poverty alleviation and environment protection.
Food
security is when all people, at all times, have physical, social and economic
access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs
and food preferences for an active and healthy
life; food security has four important dimensions: stability, availability,
accessibility and actual consumption and use of food (FAO, 2011). The
dimensions cover a broad range of factors that contribute to food security,
from sufficient quantities and types of food to individuals’ or house- holds’
incomes and sustained ability to purchase or produce food in sufficient
quantities and types and how it is stored, processed and consumed. People are
considered well-fed and well-nourished when they can obtain safe food of
sufficient quantity, variety and quality to sustain their lives (UNDP, 2012).
The opposite of food security is food insecurity which according to USDA (2016)
is a household-level economic and social condition of limited or uncertain access
to adequate food. World Bank (2007) estimated that over 1.2 billion people
globally were chronically food insecure. The report further explained that
certain groups which included women were particularly vulnerable to food
insecurity. The unmistakable factor driving food insecurity is poverty combined
with other socioeconomic and political problems.
1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT
Smallholder
farmers in Nigeria face many risks in their farming activities. The country has
recorded drought, crop and animal diseases and pests as well as fluctuations in
prices of both farm produce and inputs. As a result, there has been variability
in household income. Risk hinders farmers from pursuing farming as a business;
risk situation is complicated by the fact that farmers operate in an
environment with weak markets. They do not have access to sufficient support
institutions (facilities) that can help them cope with risks (Luke, 2011). For
several decades, agricultural production in Nigeria has faced many risks such
as variability in yields, product-prices and cost of inputs (Okunmadewa, 2003).
Nigeria farmers typically grow their crops in rain-fed conditions due to poor
irrigation systems. The annual rainfall fluctuates widely each year, and pests,
diseases, high cost of insurance, planting materials and poor soil fertility
affect the yields of both food and cash crops in Nigeria. According to
Kurukulasuriya (2006) and Seo and
Mendelsohn(2006), the events of climate change and variability lead to
substantial losses of both crop and livestock causing agricultural activities
to be at high risk, unattractive and unbeneficial to the majority of
small-holder farmers.
In
Africa, the combination of socio-political restrictions, land degradation and
lack of adequate rainfall often causes crop failures and there is high
vulnerability to vagaries of nature. The performance of the agricultural sector
is poor and food production is low, farm output is driven by episodal
biological and climatic events over which producers have little control (Belaineh,
2003). Food insecurity and poverty are still the global problem and are more
critical in Sub-Saharan Africa (URT, 2005). It is estimated that at least one
third of Africa’s population is food insecure and Undernourished (Rutatora et
al., 2004; Massawe, 2007). Globally, the number of people suffering from hunger
and poverty stood at 852 million from 2000 to 2002; out of these 815 million in
the developing countries and 9 million in the industrialized countries. In 2008
the number increased to 925 million whereas in 2010 to 2012 the number
decreased a bit to 870 Million and maternal and child under nutrition remain
pervasive (FAO, 2005; FAO, 2010; FAO, 2012; Horton et al., 2009). About 95% of
the food produced in Sub-Sahara Africa depends on rain-fed agriculture mainly
undertaken in the dry-lands (Reilly et al., 2001). Farmers in Africa are
exposed to several types of risks caused by climate change and variability
which severely affect agriculture and eventually food security (Maddison,
2006).
Regardless
of the pressure exerted by the climate change and variability in different
areas of the world including Nigeria, cassava farmers have sustained their
lives over the millennia particularly for food security and poverty reduction
using different management adaptations strategies (Mbilinyi et al., 2005).
Literally, there is a variety of documentations about adaptation strategies to
climate change and variability in the developing countries (2004; Chibber and
Laajaj, 2007). Most of the researches, for example (Enfors, 2008; Prabhakar and
Shaw, 2008) concentrated on studying water deficit and farmland management
strategies without empirical evaluation on gender role and risk reduction
practices of farmers. Olawuyi and Olawuyi (2015 ) studied risk management strategies
adoption of farming household in Kwara State Nigeria, Salimonu and Falusi
(2009) studied sources of risk and management strategies, while Okunmadewa
(2003) did a study on risk and vulnerability assessment and went ahead to
identify some types of risk in farming in Nigeria. More so the many risk in
agricultural production have been affirmed by many studies and scholars, and
the different roles men and women play in the agricultural production value
chain have equally been reported. However, there seems to be little knowledge
of the various risk management practices adopted by the different gender to mitigate
these risk, similarly much research have not been carried out in Abia state to
assess gender roles and farmers’ management practices related to agricultural
risk and their implications on food
security and poverty reduction. Also, the extents to which the risk management
practices are adopted have not been evaluated. Therefore, the different ways
male and female farmers’ perceive and deal with risk needs to be studied and
properly understood. This study intends to fill this knowledge gap.
Against
this backdrop, this study aimed at addressing the following research questions;
1.
What are the socio-economic
characteristics of the cassava farmers by gender?
2.
What are the sources of risk in cassava
production and management practices available to the farmers by gender?
3.
What are the level of risk management adopted by farmers by gender
4.
What is the poverty and food security
status of the cassava farmers by gender?
5.
Are there influence of RMP adoption on food
security and poverty status?
6.
What constraints militate against the
adoption of RMP by cassava farmers?
1.3 OBJECTIVES
OFTHE STUDY
The
broad objective of this study is to determine the implications of gender
differentials in risk management practices on the food security and poverty
status of cassava farmers in Abia State.
The
specific objectives are to:
1.
analyse the socio-economic characteristics
of the cassava farmers by gender
2.
identify the sources of risk in cassava
production and management practices used by farmers gender
3.
estimate the level of adoption of risk
management practices by cassava farmers by gender
4.
ascertain the poverty and food security
status of the cassava farmers by gender
5.
estimate the influence of the level of RMP adoption on food security
and poverty status and
6.
identify constraints militating against
the adoption of risk management practices by cassava farmers.
1.4 HYPOTHESES
H1:
There is no significant difference in the level of risk management practices adopted
by cassava farmers by gender
H2:
Poverty status of farmers is directly related to quantity of cassava output,
level of RMP adoption, access to credit, farming experience, farm size, annual
non-farm income, and cooperative membership and inversely related to farmers’
age, household size, level of education, and extension contact
H3:
Food security is positively influenced by farmers’ level of education, access
to credit, farming experience, extension contact, asset ownership, farm size,
livestock ownership, use of improved seeds, and non-farm diversification, and
negatively influenced by age of farmers, household size, level of adoption of
RMP, and monthly income.
H4:
There is no significant difference between the poverty and food security status
of male and female cassava farmers.
1.5 JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY
Risk
has important implications to agriculture in that it affects the types of
investments that farmers make. Ultimately, it affects the level of farm output
achieved and economic growth, especially in Nigeria where agriculture contributes
up to 20.48% of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) (NBS, 2016). Information on the
risk management practices of rural farmers represents important contributions
to existing body of knowledge; good risk management practice could attract
investments and increase agricultural production. The understanding of the
individual smallholder’s risk perception and his/her reaction to risk and
selection of risk management practices, may affect the functioning of the
agricultural sector at local, regional and national levels. Thus, understanding
the importance of risk, determining how different facets of risk and risk
management interact to affect the agricultural sector and shape agricultural
policy choices, is certainly a relevant research topic.
The
understanding of the different risk management practices by the different
gender might contribute to attempts to increase sustainable productivity of
smallholder agriculture and to improve the risk mitigation ability by assisting
farmers to better manage risk. Mores, the study will help to create awareness
on the part of the farmers about the level of risks they are exposed to and
help them to see the need for effective agricultural risk management practices.
The outcome of the study would equip them with the needed risk management
practices to manage their risks.
Findings
from this study would provide empirical information on how to mitigate risks
that affect cassava food production; it would also highlight the adaptation
practices adopted by farmers for food security, poverty reduction, and adequacy
of off-farm activities in ensuring household food security. These information
can be used to enrich the existing and forthcoming policies and programmes on
climate change and variability that imply on food security.
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