ABSTRACT
This study assessed the effect of flooding on poverty and food security status of arable crop farmers in South-east, Nigeria. Specifically, it described socio-economic characteristics of arable crop farmers; ascertained the flooding incidences; ascertained the locations affected by flooding incidence identified the causes of flooding; ascertained perceived poverty and food security of farmers; determined the poverty status and food security status of farmers before and after the flood incidences; ascertained perceived effect of flooding incidences on arable crop production, and examined different farmers’ coping mechanisms used to minimize effect of flooding and during food shortages/security in the study area. A Multi-stage random sampling procedure was used to select 270 (two hundred and seventy) arable crop farmers (Anambra = 90, Ebonyi=90, Imo = 90). Data were collected with a structured questionnaire, and analyzed using descriptive statistics and inferential statistics (multiple, probit regression analyses and Z-test analyses). Result showed that farmers averred that flooding incidence was high with =3.5 flood frequency, =3.6 intensity, =3.5extensity and =4.0 severity. The respondents were food insecure using the food security indices. There was high poverty level for farmers across the States before and after flooding incidence. The pooled result showed about 68.90% and 68.10% of the farmers were food insecure before, while (31.10%) and (31.90%) were secure after the flooding incidence. Farmers had favourable perception ( = 3.7) of flooding incidences, high level of usage ( = 2.6) of coping mechanisms in times of food shortages and security ( = 2.6). Multiple regression pooled result showed that sex (-1.1651), education status (0.6539), household size (0.1760) and on-farm income (-0.00001) influenced poverty status of arable crop farmers. Probit regression estimates showed that education (0.5212), household size (-0.0931) and on-farm income (0.00008) influenced food security status of farmers. Z-test result revealed that there was no significant difference between poverty status of the farmer before and after flooding incidence at P≤ 0.05. Probit regression estimates showed that flood frequency (-1.885), intensity (-2.267), duration (-4.951) and seasonality (2.864) influenced poverty while flood frequency (-3.602), intensity (-1.711), duration (-4.369), seasonality (2.207) influenced food security. The study concluded that farmers had high poverty level and were food insecure as a result of flood incidence in the area. It is therefore recommended that the affected households should be encouraged by government and non-governmental organizations via awareness creation on adaptation measures, and also being involved in other income generation activities that can make them to be food secure in case of any such incidence in future. There should be provision of relief materials so as to reduce poverty and increase food security in the area.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Page i
Declaration ii
Certification iii
Dedication iv
Acknowledgements v
Table of Contents vi
List of Tables x
Lists of Figures xi
Abstract xii
CHAPTER
1: INTRODUCTION
1.1
Background of the Study
1
1.2
Statement of the Problem 10 1.3 Research Questions
14
1.4 Objectives of the Study 15
1.5 Hypotheses of the Study
16
1.6 Significance for the Study
17
1.7 Definition of Terms
18
CHAPTER
2:
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Flooding in
Nigeria - Current and Past
23
2.2 Flooding in Nigeria and Causes
24
2.2.1 High precipitation
24
2.2.2 Poor physical planning and implementation of planning regulations 25
2.2.3 Poor drainage infrastructure and waste management 25
2.3 Food Security
26
2.3.1 Role
and constraints of smallholder farmers in Nigeria’s food security 27
2.4 Food Security and The Sustainable
Development Goals 29
2.5 Flooding, Food Security, and the Nigeria
Agriculture Promotion Policy 30
2.6 Understanding
the Impact of Flooding on the Different Components of Food Security 32
2.6.1 Flooding and
food availability
33
2.6.2 Flooding and
food access
34
2.6.3 Flooding and
food utilization
35
2.6.4 Flooding and food stability 36
2.7 Addressing Flooding to Improve Food Security in Nigeria 36
2.7.1 Improved physical planning
36
2.7.2 Improved farming practices
37
2.7.3 Indigenous
practices
38
2.7.4
Grey and green infrastructure
38
2.8 Impact
of climate change on flood
39
2.9 The
State of Agriculture in Nigeria
40
2.10
Farming Systems in Nigeria 41
2.10.1
Importance of smallholders to sustainable livelihoods 42
2.10.2
Sustainable intensification of smallholder farming systems 43
2.11
Climate as an important Component of Farming Systems 44
2.11.1
Impact of climate change on agriculture in Nigeria 45
2.12
Farmers’ Understanding of Climate Change
46
2.12.1
Indigenous responses by smallholders in Nigeria 46
2.12.2
Case study of the guinea savannah belt of Nigeria. 47
2.12.3
Bottlenecks in climate adaptation by smallholders in Nigeria 47
2.13.
Climate-Smart Agriculture
48
2.14.
Simulation Models as Tools for Climate-Smart Agriculture 49
2.15
Linkages between Extension Services, Smallholders, and Climate-Smart
agriculture
50
2.16
Theoretical Framework
52
2.16.1
Geophysical theory
52
2.16.2 The hydro – plate theory: The great flood
53
2.16.3
Ancient Flood Theory 54
2.16.4 Evidence and theories of a great Flood
54
2.17 Conceptual Framework
56
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY
3.1 Study Area 59
3.2
Population of the study 59
3.3 Sampling
procedure 61
3.4
Data Collection 62
3.5 Validation
of Instrument
62
3.6 Reliability
of Instrument 62
3.7 Measurement
of Variables
63
3.8 Data
Analysis
67
3.8.1
Model specification
69
CHAPTER
4: RESULTS
AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Respondents
Socio-economic Characteristics 76
4.2 Flooding incidences 85 4.3 Locations affected by flood
89
4.4 Causes of flooding incidence 91
4.5 Perception
of poverty and food security indices 93
4.6.1 Determination
of poverty and food security status of arable crop farmers before and after flooding incidences
97
4.6.2 Poverty
line per capita expenditure of arable crop farmers before and after flooding
4.7
Household food security status using
per capita food expenditure before and after flooding
incidence
101
4.7.2 House food security status per capita monthly
food expenditure before and after flooding incidence 101
4.8 Perceived
effect of flooding on arable crop production 104
4.9
Coping mechanism used by farmers to minimize effect of flooding 106
4.10 Coping strategies used by arable
crop farmers in times of flood-induced food shortages and security
108
4.11
Testing of Hypothesis
111
CHAPTER 5: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Summary 138
5.2 Conclusion 142
5.3 Recommendations 142
REFERENCES 144
APPENDIX
160
LIST
OF TABLES
4.1 Distribution of Respondents according
Socio-economic Characteristics 76
4.2
Distribution of Respondents
According to locations affected by flooding incidence
89
4.3 Distribution
of Respondents according to flooding incidence 85
4.4 Distribution
of Respondents according to causes of flooding incidence 91
4.5 Distribution of Respondents according to
perceived poverty and food security indices 97
4.6.1 Respondents’
determination of poverty and food security status of arable crop farmers
before and after flooding incidences 99
4.6.2 Distribution
of Respondents according to poverty line per capita expenditure of arable crop farmers before and after flooding 100
4.7.1 Distribution of respondents according to
household food security status using per capita food expenditure before and
after flooding incidence 104
4.7.2 House food security status per capita monthly
food expenditure before and after flooding incidence 104
4.8 Perceived
effect of flooding n arable crop production, food availability and security after flooding
105
4.9 Coping mechanism used by farmers to minimize
effect of flooding 106
4.10 Coping strategies used by arable crop farmers in
times of food shortages and security as a result of flooding
108
LIST
OF FIGURES
2.1: Conceptual
framework of the study
57
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE
STUDY
Flood
has been seen as one of the disasters causing serious economic losses in
various part of the world (Ramakrishna, Solomon, and Daisy, 2020). Flooding has
been seen as a partial inundation of normally dry area due to overflow of water
on land surfaces, inland water or rapid accumulation of water on dry land (Jeb
and Aggarwal, 2018). The immediate effect of this natural disaster includes
destruction of crops, loss of livestock, damage to properties, food insecurity,
loss of lives among the affected communities (Alam, 2010; Islam and Wong 2017;
Okeleye, 2016).
In
recent times, flooding has become a yearly occurrence in Nigeria and is
expected to increase due to climate change. Flood is an overflow of water which
rises to overflow land which is not normally submerged. Flood results from a
number of causes of which the most important are climatological in nature
(Okorie, 2020). Flooding has been observed globally as one of nature’s damaging
phenomena. Flooding is a serious environmental hazard which affects crops,
livestock etc. The rise of water or rain water during rainy season results in
serious and severe damages to individual properties and force several people to
vacate the area thereby rendering many people homeless. Flooding is as a result
of heavy rainfall or when rivers and oceans overflow their banks due to high
tide, thereby submerging land areas. Flooding normally occurs when lakes,
ponds, river overflow, soil and vegetation cannot absorb all the water, making
excess water in the land rise in volumes that cannot be carried within stream
channels or retained in lakes, natural ponds or man-made reservoirs (Erekpokeme,
2017). Flooding can make things worse by increased amount of impervious surface
or by natural hazards, wild fires or deforestation which reduces the wanted vegetation
that can absorb rainfall (Ayooso, 2018).
The
actions taking by individuals without adequate attention and direction to
geological structure of most cities of Nigeria have undoubtedly contributed to
reoccurrence of disaster and consequently pose threats to environmental
sustainability in most of these states including South-east (Oludare, Olusegun,
and Olufemi, 2016).
Floods are the most
recurring, widespread, disastrous and frequent natural hazards of the world”
(Umoh, 2017). There has been unprecedented occurrence of
floods and its associated effects in most of the rural communities and urban
centers of developing countries including Nigeria (Fabiyi and Olokosi, 2018).
In
2022, flood affected several states in Nigeria including Anambra, Ebonyi, Imo,
Kogi, Delta, Bayelsa and Rivers States, and displaced many people especially in
the rural communities. The flood rendered millions of people homeless and their
means of livelihood destroyed. The social and economic impact of the flood
incident, particularly on agricultural production and social infrastructure,
cannot be overemphasized, yet the long term impacts of the recent flood in
Nigeria could be more severe (Ezezue, Agha, Ndieze and Rachael; 2022).
Flooding
has not been known only to damage properties and endanger the lives of human
and animals rather, it results to other secondary effects like outbreak of
diseases such as cholera and malaria as well (Abowei and Sikoki, 2015).
Flooding mainly occurred when heavy rainfall, natural water course does not
have the capacity to convey excess water thereby destroying properties.
However, floods are always caused by heavy rainfall. They can result from other
phenomena, particularly in coastal areas where inundation can be caused by a
tsunami or a high tide coinciding with higher than normal river levels. Dam
failure, triggered for example by an earth quake, will result in flooding on
the downstream area, even in dry weather condition (Ezezue, Agha, Ndieze and
Rachael; 2017).
Obeta
(2020) observed that in many parts Nigeria, flooding continues to be in
increase causing problem, dislodging individuals and communities by surprise in
a repeatedly exasperating way and causing disruption of social activities,
damaging of infrastructure and even death of people, livestock and destroying
of farm lands. In the same vein. Onwuka, Ikekpeazu and onuha, 2015) asserts
that Nigeria 923,768sq km land area is made up of 13, 000sq km of water. Nigeria has had her own fair share of floods,
according to him, between 2011-2012, for instance, Abia, Anambra, Imo, Ebonyi,
Enugu, Adamawa, and Akwa Ibom States witnessed heavy downpour and rain storm
which affected more than 5,000 rural inhabitants. Explaining further, Onwuka, et.al., (2015) confirms that in the same
year, about 12,300 people were displaced by torrential rain which destroyed
farmlands, damaged properties and submerged buildings in many parts of the
country. Emeriobeole (2018) asserts that floods are among one of the
devastating natural disasters in the world, which have claimed more lives and
causing property damage than anyone could imagine.
Flooding
is one of the major environmental problems facing man within the century. This
is especially the case in most wetlands of the world. The reason for this is
the general rise in sea level globally, due to global warming, as well as the
saturated nature of the wetlands in the Riverine areas. Periodic floods occur
on many rivers, forming a surrounding region known as flood plain.
As
noted by Adeleye and Rustum (2017) torrential rainfall has caused rivers to overflow their banks, causes mud
houses to collapse and also washed away livestock as well as destroy crops
and farm lands in the rural communities.
In most of the rural villages and communities, flooding has damaged bridges and
caused overflow of dams, submergence of buildings, displacement of people from
their homes, loss of people’s valuables. The economy of a place can also be
severely affected by flooding. Businesses may lose stock, patronage, data and
productivity and disruption to utilities and transport. Tourism, farming and livestock
can equally be affected, vital infrastructure damages or disrupted, electricity
and gas supplies are also interrupted, road linkages are damaged, railways,
canals etc are blocked causing disruption to transport network and
accessibility severely disrupted for local inhabitants, especially amongst
those considered most vulnerable and loss of communications networks (Adeleye
and Rustum, 2017).
Although
flooding is a bane to most people, flooding can be beneficial to rural
populace. Farmers’ benefit more from natural floods than from not having them
at all. What makes natural floods a disaster is when flood waters occur in
areas populated by humans and in areas of significant human development, when
left in its natural state, the benefits of floods outweigh the adverse effects
(Bradshaw, Sodhi, Peh, and Brook, 2017). For farmers that maintain their crops
along rivers, they should not feel threatened by yearly flooding. Flooding help
their farm lands to have better soil consistencies and keeps their land fertile
resulting to better harvests each year by depositing some manure. Instead of
preventing the natural flow of river floods, it might be beneficial in the long
run to allow the flood waters to encroach into their lands (Folorunsho and
Awosika, 2019). It was how nature intended it to be in the first place.
However, there may be limits to how much farmers can tolerate such natural
occurrences.
Food security, according to FAO (2016; 2018) occur when everybody,
at any giving time, have physical and economic access to sufficient, available
and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an
active and healthy life”. Food security in the above context consists of four
dimensions viz; food accessibility, availability, utilization and stability,
and these dimensions must be fulfilled for food security objectives to be
realized (Akukwe, 2019).
Food
accessibility is a measure of adequate and enough food, usually determined by
affordability of food and money spent on food while food availability is
determined by sufficiency of food that are produced, stored, processed,
distributed and exchanged. In addition, food utilization refers to the
essential nutrients through adequate diet secured from the food consumed
including access to potable water and safety of food and stability emphasizes
the importance of having to reduce the risk of adverse effects on the other
three dimensions: food availability, food stability, food accessibility or food
utilization over time; it deals with the phrase “at all times” in the food
security definition by FAO (2016;2018).
Food security has been known as one of the issues
of global importance that nations strive towards achieving. Food security is an
issue of global importance that nations strive towards achieving its goals.
There have been several global partnerships and initiatives, most notably by
the United Nation to achieve food security, which sadly remains elusive today.
Nigeria is particularly lagging in achieving food security (Akukwe, 2019). A state
of food insecurity would occur once any of the food security dimensions is
truncated by flooding, drought or any environmental change, hence, there exists
a relationship between flooding and food (in) security (World Food, 2020).
Poverty has been referred as the state or
condition in which many people at all times or communities lack the financial
resources and essentials for a minimum standard of living. As such, their basic
human needs cannot be met. Poverty-stricken people and families have been known
to live without proper housing, clean water, healthy food, and medical
attention because they cannot afford to get them. Each nation may have its own
criteria for determining the poverty line and counting how many of its people
live in poverty. It's important to remember that poverty is a socioeconomic
condition that is the result of multiple factors—not just income. Poverty is
generally in the increase in Nigeria, resulting in incidences of disease and
hunger, decreased life expectancy, and low per-capita income. The rising cost
and unavailability of food exacerbated by perennials flooding disasters ensure
that the poor cannot access this basic need (Osabohien,
et.al 2018)
A state of food security entails that adequate food is available,
stable, accessible; all people have physical and economic access to the food
they require; availability and access are ensured over time (stability), and
the food is efficiently utilised. Attaining food security requires not just
attaining an adequate level of good nutrition and food consumption, but
maintaining this level at low risk over time (FAO, 2018). Food insecurity on
the other hand, exists even if one of these conditions is not met or there is
any negative shift (e.g. caused by flooding) in any of these dimensions of food
security (Akukwe, 2019).
Flooding has been known to be caused by
several factors and it is invariably preceded by heavy rainfall and overflow of
rivers. The other causes of flooding are moderate to severe winds over water,
unusual high tides, tsunamis due to undersea earthquakes, breaks or failures of
dams, levees, retention ponds or lakes, and other infrastructure that retains
water. Flooding can be aggravated by impervious surfaces or by natural and other
man-made hazards which destroy soil, vegetation that can absorb rainfall.
Although flooding is a natural occurrence, man-made changes to the land can
also be a factor (Akukwe, 2019). There are several causes and types of floods.
There could be flash flood which occurs quickly by rapid rise of extremely
dangerous water travelling at high speeds. Coastal flooding in oceans which is
driven by storm surges, hurricanes and tsunamis also causes heavy flooding.
Failures of dams or other structures constructed to retain water may engender
flooding.
In
recent times, climate change and global warming has contributed in flooding
because the weather are not predictable at all times (Famous, 2016; obeta,
2014; Ifatimehim and Ufuah, 2016; Akukwe, 2019).
In South-East Nigeria, flood disaster
has been perilous to people, communities and institutions. Recently, South-east
states of the Nigeria were affected by flooding which have claimed so many
lives, damaged property, disrupt economic activities, caused grief and
emotional trauma and also displaced the inhabitants of the affected
environments, it shattered both the built-environment and undeveloped plan, it
shattered both artificial and natural environment, properties worth millions of
naira got lost due to flood
occurrences. One prominent attributes about it is that flooding does not
discriminate, but marginalizes whosoever refuses to prepare for its occurrence,
it does not give sign (NEMA Newsletter, 2020). Whereas flooding itself is a
situation that results when land that is usually dry is covered with water of a
river overflowing as a result of heavy rain, and dam over flow, flooding occurs
naturally on the flood plains which are prone to disaster.
According to Umoh, (2017), farmers
and community efforts to mitigate floods which is a yearly occurrence is
becoming more severe and farmers are becoming more vulnerable due to
unfavourable effects of climate change. He also pointed out that in a research
carried out in some states of the Akwa Ibom, Anambra, Ebonyi, Abia, Enugu, Imo,
Rivers and Ondo States, it was observed that land management
practice particularly the use of mounds was commonly used by farmers to
mitigate effects of flooding. He also asserted that in the wetland region of
these states, farmer’s plant flood resistant or flood tolerant varieties of
crops. Farmers have also diversified their income earning activities to cope
with environmental hazards. Fishing communities in these start adapt to
flooding and sea rise by fishing father away from the shore than they use to
and carry deep freezers to preserve their catch during the long period they
will be at sea or river.
Among some of the states close to the coastal
rural communities such as Anambra and Ebonyi States, Fabiyi et.al,(2018) discovered that these
communities have undocumented knowledge of local meteorology which are based on
observation and traditional practices and belief systems. (Fabiyi and Oloukoi,
2018). This local knowledge helps some of the rural farmers to predict flooding
on seasonal and long term basis. Other mitigating measures includes improved cassava
cuttings, plantains and maize which are early maturing and can adjust quickly
by offering them food on the table (IITA, 2016). Other flood adaptation
measures and control include, proper drainage system, building of buffer dams
in strategic areas, building of houses to avoid blockage of natural drainages
and water ways, preventing siltation of creeks, rivers and other water bodies
by dredging, setting up a well planned community flood preparedness,
sensitization and management programme to be conducted across the states
(Erekpokeme, 2017). In some of the rural communities of South-East states,
Nigeria, water levels are increasing, whereas it is decreasing in some other
areas. The rainfall pattern is no longer what it used to be as we may
experience extended rainy season or delayed rain. And whichever way many at
times, lead to flood disaster. When flood disaster occurs, many environmental
hazards are likely to follow.
The recently adopted Sustainable
Development Goals lays emphasis on ending hunger, achieving food security and
improving nutrition and promoting sustainable agriculture by 2030 in Goal 2.
FAO (2018) has noted that all hungry people are food insecure, though, not all
food insecure people are hungry, and the term ‘hunger’ has been used to distinguish
a subset of food insecure people while people suffering from hunger because of
inadequate access to food may be considered ‘currently food insecure’.
Poverty is undoubtedly a cause of
hunger, hence a relationship exists between hunger, poverty and food
insecurity. Understanding this relationship can clarify how poverty and hunger
reduction programmes can contribute to strengthening food security and vice
versa. Flooding to have been found to have a significant negative
implication on food security in the South-east States of Nigeria.
There was need to assess the aspects in which flooding affect food security in
the agrarian and flood vulnerable communities in the south eastern region of
Nigeria. Extensive works had been carried out on the effect and impact of
flooding on health and environment in Nigeria ranging from destruction of roads
and other infrastructure, stream pollution, coastal erosion, destruction of
farms to loss of lives and property.
It is therefore against this background that this
research is geared towards assessing the effects of flooding on poverty and food
security statuses of smallholder arable crop farmers in South-East, Nigeria.
The findings of this research are undeniably going to assist farmers strengthen
their adaptation capacity and ultimately enhance their well-being.
1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT
Agriculture overtime has remained the
most vulnerable sectors of climate change in Nigeria, particularly in terms of
declines in agricultural production and uncertain climate that significantly
affects food security (Armah, Yawson, Yengoh, Odoi and Afrifa, 2020). Despite
this fact, agriculture has remained an important source of livelihoods in our
country Nigeria.
Studies have shown that an average of
70% of the population in Africa, lives by farming; 40% of all export earnings
come from agriculture and about one-third of the national income in Africa is
generated by the agricultural sector (McCuster, and Carr, 2016). The vulnerable
members of the society in Nigeria are those most dependent on rain-fed
subsistence agriculture for food, income and job, and hence the most affected
by climate change which results to heavy rainfall causing flooding (Yaro
,2014).
South-east Nigeria is a
food-insecure. They are among the region most vulnerable and at risk of food
insecurity due to climate change, economic crises, and conflict (World Food
Programme 2020). In spite of the impact of flooding on food security in our
rural communities, it is not recognised as a menace by policymakers, as
identified by the national agricultural plans in 2021, which do not acknowledge
the role of disasters on food security. The food security situation has been
dire before, and the ongoing flooding has made it worse.
Food security is a complex phenomenon
and may be seen as an integration of four core dimensions i.e. food
availability, accessibility, utilization and stability (FAO,2019). The problem
of food insecurity is not only caused by an insufficient supply of food but
also due to the lack of purchasing power and access at national and household
levels. Therefore, in spite of gains in global food production and food
security over the last three decades, more than 800 million people are
undernourished and almost all of them belong to the developing countries such
as Nigeria (Abid, Schilling, Scheffran and Zulfiqar 2020); FAO, 2019). More so,
growing population coupled with increased intensity of environmental extreme
events like floods, droughts, extreme variability in temperature and rainfall has
increased the pressure on the current food production systems which in turn,
has threatened the current food security crisis in most of the developing
countries such as Nigeria (Dewan, 2015).
In South-east, Nigeria such as Abia,
Imo, Enugu, Ebonyi and Anambra States, flood remains a persistent environmental
challenge which normally occurs when flowing water covering land areas that
were not subjected to inundation before. Explicitly, flooding emanates as a
result of land inundation with water attributed to the rise in water or the
inability of an aquatic ecosystem to hold excess water. Series of reports of an
outbreak of epidemic disease and various water-borne diseases add to the
contamination of water supplies due to flooding. Many anthropogenic activities
have contributed to worsening the event of flood disaster which include
industrialization, urbanization, population growth, utilization of
environmental resources and infrastructural development (Echendu, 2021).
Durodola (2019) in his research submitted that unlawful dropping of wastes,
blockage and poor water evacuation system are causal-factors of flooding in
Nigeria.
Food security practice and livelihood
in the flood-prone areas of South-east is threatened by several challenges. How
much food is available depends on food production. Food production levels in
Nigeria are already below demand. Nigeria relies on US$10 billion of imports to
meet its food and agricultural production shortfalls but flood inundation
affecting some of the state are seriously affecting it (mostly wheat, rice,
poultry and fish). (Echendu, 2021).This is even though agriculture is the
second most important economic activity after crude oil.
Flooding has been found to be one of
the major factors that degrade the environment destroys crops, farm
settlements, livestock, and seedling stores which affect the next farming
season thereby causing food insecurity. This reduces harvest and affects the
next planting season, culminating in a food shortage crisis. Livestock are
killed or lose pastures and inundated farmlands are unsuitable for cultivation.
Depending on the type of sediment deposited on farmlands during floods, some
cannot be cultivated for a long time, creating a cycle of food insecurity and
hunger, aquaculture and fish farming are not left out either. For instance,
floods wash away fish stock, leading to a loss of income for the farmers and a
loss of valuable source of protein (Mbah, 2015).
Flooding has an impact on access to
food in several ways; food becomes more scarce, hard to physically obtain and
more expensive. Smallholder farmers – who make up 88% of Nigerian farmers –
cultivate, process, and eat directly from their farms, they are the worst
affected by flooding disasters. As found in many research reviews, small scale
farmers lose their primary source of income while lacking the resources to
purchase food in the market. This also sets off a cycle in which high costs
mean farmers can’t buy seeds or seedlings, affecting their ability to produce.
Flooding causes massive damage to infrastructure, like the collapse of bridges
and roads in Nigeria, cutting off access roads. This has affected many farmers,
for instance, farmers cannot access needed inputs (like seeds or fertilisers)
and markets for their goods. In addition, there are supply chain disruptions,
increased prices, the destruction of farm produce and stored reserves (Echendu,
2021).
In order words, availability and
access to food do not guarantee adequate food utilisation if the necessary
nutrition from food is lacking because there’s been nutrient and soil loss as a
result of flooding. Degraded soil produces low quality and low nutrient food.
Plant tissue damage can occur due to flooding, which promotes the development
of bacterial and fungal diseases affecting crop quality. Micronutrient
consumption is affected if the nutrient composition of foods is altered. The
resultant effect of flooding has been found in Nigeria’s agricultural
farmlands. In addition, the impact of flooding on the general flora and fauna have
been found to reduce the availability of wild food and game, which are rich nutrient
sources for rural dwellers.
Flood affects food stability –
ensuring that food is always available, accessible and nutritious. A decline in
agricultural productivity because of flooding affects the availability of food.
Subsequent decline or reduction in supply increase prices of food, making it
inaccessible to a large number of Nigeria’s population. The high prices and
unavailability of preferred food choices has forced consumers to limit their
consumption and opt for less nutritious but more filling food, which has an
impact on food accessibility and utilisation.
Despite flood being a natural
phenomenon, the impacts of flooding in densely populated and poor communities
has been very severe affecting the small scale farmers more (Dewan, 2015;
Egbinola, Olaniran, and Amanambu, 2017). When floods are experienced in these
communities, it results to poor hygiene, diseases and pandemics escalate, water
becomes contaminated, and lives may be lost in the process. Poor communities
are more vulnerable than others (Situngkir, Sagala, Yamin, and Widyasari, 2014)
due to their exposure to natural disasters, poorly constructed houses (which
are easily damaged), and inadequate or poorly maintained drainage which
compound the negative impacts of flooding. Moreover, when flooding occurs, it
affects economic activities, thereby reducing the income of the poor, homes,
and other buildings are damaged, and also education of their children will be
halted, all these further exacerbate the poverty level of the inhabitants of
poor communities.
Unfortunately, the knowledge of the
effects of flood on poverty and food security statuses of smallholder arable
crop farmers in South East, Nigeria which are vulnerable to flooding and have
comparative advantage in the production of staple foods is lacking.
Flooding is usually associated with
loss of lives and properties depending on the intensity of flood. Therefore,
this study was concerned to assess the effect of these flooding on poverty and
food security status of arable crop farmers in South-East Nigeria.
1.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
Based on the
foregoing the study was guided by the following research questions;
i. What
are the socio-economic characteristics of arable crop farmers in South-East?
ii. What
are the flooding incidences (Frequency, Intensity, Extensity, Duration,
Seasonality and Severity)?
iii. Where
are the various locations of flooding incidences?
iv. What
are the causes of flooding?
v.
What are respondents’
perception of food security incidences (availability, accessibility,
utilization and stability) as a result of flooding?
vi.
What is the poverty status
of arable crop farmers?
vii.
What is the food security
status of arable crop farmers?
viii.
What are the perceived
effects of flooding incidences on arable crop production food availability,
accessibility, stability, utilization and security? and
ix.
What are the coping
mechanisms used by arable crop farmers in the study area? ‘
x.
What are the coping strategies
adopted by respondents in managing food shortage and poverty caused by flooding
in the area?
1.4 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The broad objective of
this study was to assess the effects of flooding on poverty and food security
status of arable crop farmers in south-east, Nigeria
Specific
Objectives were to:
i.
describe socio-economic
characteristics of arable crop farmers;
ii.
assess the flooding
incidences parameter study in the area (frequency, intensity, extensity,
duration, severity and seasonality);
iii.
ascertain various
locations of flooding incidences;
iv.
assess the causes of
flooding in the area;
v.
ascertain respondents’
perception of food security incidences (availability, accessibility,
utilization and stability) as a result of flooding;
vi.
determine the poverty
status of arable crop farmers before and after flooding incidences;
vii.
determine the food
security status of arable crop farmers;
viii.
assess perceived effect
of flooding on arable crop, availability, accessibility, stability, utilization
and security;
ix.
ascertain the coping
mechanisms used by arable crop farmers to manage flooding incidences in the study
area; and
x.
ascertain coping
strategies adopted by respondents in managing food shortage and poverty caused
by flooding incidences.
1.5 HYPOTHESES OF THE STUDY
The
following hypotheses guided the study:
HO1:
Selected socio-economic characteristics of arable crop farmers do not influence
their poverty status
HO2:
Selected socio-economic characteristics of arable crop farmers do not influence
their food security status
HO3: There
is no significant difference between poverty status of arable crop farmers
before and after flooding incidences in South-east, Nigeria.
HO4: There
is no significant difference between food security status of arable crop
farmers before and after flooding incidences in South-east, Nigeria.
HO5:
There are no significant effects of flooding incidence on the poverty status of
arable crop farmers in South-east, Nigeria.
HO6:
There are no significant effects of flooding incidence on the food security
status of arable crop farmers South-east, Nigeria.
1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE
STUDY
This
study is of great importance for both citizens and settlers, especially farmers
in South-East, Nigeria and its environment. The research identified the likely
causes of flooding and assess the effects on poverty and food security status
of farmers in the study area.
It
has been noted that the global mean temperature has increased by 0.74 °C in the
last 100 years, and is expected to rise to between 1.1 and 6.4 °C by the end of
the twenty-first century, depending on projected scenarios (Inter-governmental
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 2017), which could lead to extreme climate variability
and weather-related events like flooding (Agbonkhese et.al, 2014). Evidence shows that more intense and recurrent
weather events (heat and cold waves, floods, droughts, heavy storms), rising
irregularities in seasonal rainfall patterns and rising sea levels (including
flooding) are already having direct impact not only on food production, but
also on incidence of food distribution infrastructure, food emergencies,
livelihood assets and human health in both urban and rural areas (Adedeji,
2018; FAO, 2018, Clark et.al, 2018).
The
researcher looked at the extent to which flooding has affected poverty and food
security as well as mapping the flood incidences and food insecurity hotspots
(i.e. summarizing the number and location of flood incidences and food insecure
people), which helped in suggesting the optimal adaptation strategies against
such events. It will also assist policy makers in designing sustainable food
security policies and flood emergency programmes for the South-East region.
Moreover,
the differential households’ abilities to cope and determinants of food
security was investigated in this research which will help in policies
formulation which will increase peoples’ resilience. In addition, the findings
of the research will serve as baseline for comparative studies related to flood
and food security in Nigeria.
1.7 DEFINITION OF TERMS
The
following terms were used as they apply to this work
Adaptive capacity: is
the ability of people to adjust or adapt to changes e.g. their capacity to maintain
their livelihoods in times of food insecurity and flooding
Agrarian community: is
an agricultural community where farming forms the major source of livelihoods
of people.
Effect: a
change which is a result or consequence of an action or other cause
Flooding: “A
flood is the buildup of too much water which rises to overflow land which is
not normally submerged. It comprises overflow of a river as a result of
long-lasting seasonal rainfall, accumulation of rainwater in low-lying areas
and excessive runoff caused by absence/inadequate storm drainage”. Flooding in
this study is treated as an event.
Food security: food
security has been seen to exist when households do have adequate physical food
for consumption, and have the social or economic access to satisfactory food
for a healthy life at all times.
Food
accessibility: is a measure of the ability to obtain
food for healthy living. This is determined by affordability of food and money
spent on food.
Food
availability: is associated with the produced
food’s physical quantities; food processed, stored, exchanged and distributed.
It has to do with “Sufficient food”.
Food insecurity: on the other hand, exists even if one of these conditions is not
met or there is any negative shift (e.g. caused by flooding) in any of these
dimensions of food security.
Food utilization: This entails the consumption of food through adequate diet and how
essential nutrients are acquired from consumed food by a person, it covers the
diet’s nutritional value, in addition to access to potable water; its
composition, preparation methods and safety of food.
Food utilization refers to the essential nutrients secured from the
food consumed including access to potable water and safety of food and
stability emphasizes the importance of having to reduce the risk of adverse
effects on the other three dimensions: food availability, food utilization, or food
accessibility over time;
Hunger:
is regarded as a severe stage of food insecurity, rather than as a distinct or
disconnected condition from the more common experience of food insecurity.
Poverty: means not having enough money for basic
needs such as food, drinking water, shelter, or toiletries. Many people in
different countries live in poverty, especially in developing
countries.
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