ABSTRACT
The study investigated gender analysis of organic and inorganic agro-inputs use among arable crop farmers in Benue and Imo States, Nigeria. Specifically, the study determined different types of organic and inorganic agro-inputs, determined gender roles differentiation in the use of organic and inorganic agro-inputs across gender in the study area among others. Multistage sampling procedure was employed in the selection of 288 respondents. Data were collected through interview schedule as well as questionnaire and were analyzed with descriptive and inferential statistics such as mean counts, frequencies, percentage, Ordinary Least Square and Z-test statistic. Results revealed that male farmers in Benue State utilized high levels of organic agro-inputs like poultry droppings (x̅ = 2.87), goat dung (x̅ = 2.76). While female utilized more of poultry droppings (x̅ = 2.52), goat dung (x̅ = 2.62). Subsequently low levels of organic agro-inputs utilization applies to both male and female farmers in Imo State such as poultry droppings (x̅ = 1.06 and x̅ = 1.83) and pig dung (x̅ = 1.22 and x̅ = 1.18) respectively. Also male farmers in Benue performed tedious roles like transportation of organic manure to the farm (21.4%) and purchasing of organic manure (20.7%). Females were involved in mild roles like preparation of wood ash (63.6%) and application of wood ash, palm bunch ash to crops (66.4%). In the same vein Imo male farmers transported organic manure to farms ((25%) and applied neem extract to crops (23.6%), while females applied organic manure to crops (20.1%). In the application of inorganic agro-inputs, males in Benue performed the roles of mixing and spraying of pesticides and herbicides (69.3%) and (67.9%) respectively. Females fetched water (32.9%) and provided containers (65%) as well. In Imo males transported fertilizers to farms (25%) and fetched water (59%), while females provided containers (10.5%). However major constraints identified by farmers in Benue in the use of organic inputs were bulkiness of organic manure, lack of efficient marketing and distribution system and gender of extension agents. While Imo farmers faced challenges like organic manure attracts pests and diseases, organic manure is bulky, offensive odor is displeasing. General constraints faced in the use of inorganic inputs were high cost of fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides, lack of government support. Result of OLS showed significant relationship between farmers` use of organic and inorganic agro-inputs and selected socioeconomic characteristics hence hypotheses 1 and 2 were rejected at 5% level. Z-test result of hypothesis 3 was not significant across gender at 5% level, while hypotheses 4,5,6,7 and 8 were significant at 5% level respectively. The study concluded that majority of male farmers` cultivated larger portions of farmland, utilized higher quantities of agro-inputs than females. Major constraints in the use of agro-inputs were offensive odor and bulkiness of organic manure, high cost of fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides and late delivery of fertilizers to farmers. The study recommended that female farmers should have access to enough farmland for arable crop production. Government should release fertilizers and other agro-inputs early and at cheaper rates to farmers in Nigeria.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Page i
Declaration ii
Certification iii
Dedication iv
Acknowledgements v
Table of Contents vi
List of Figures x
List of Tables xi
Abstract xiii
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
of the Study 1
1.2 Statement
of the Problem 10
1.3 Research
Questions 16
1.4 Objectives
of the Study 16
1.5 Test
of Hypotheses 17
1.6 Justification
of the Study 18
1.7 Scope
of the Study 20
1.8 Definition
of Terms and Operational Variables 21
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Gender Needs in Agriculture 24
2.1.1 Gender and technology adoption 25
2.1.2 Gender barriers in agriculture 28
2.1.3 Gender roles in agriculture 34
2.1.4 Gender and division of labor in agriculture 38
2.1.5 Gender and productivity gap in agriculture 43
2.1.6 Gender differences in inputs use 45
2.1.7 Gender and knowledge differences 46
2.1.8 Gender access to agricultural information
and organization 47
2.1.9 Gender access to financial support and
extension services 49
2.2 Organic and Inorganic Inputs Use
According to Gender 50
2.2.1 Organic and inorganic inputs use by farmers 52
2.2.2 Gender
roles in community governance 53
2.2.3 Gender
exclusion in community relations 61
2.3 Review of some Theories 64
2.3.1 The biological determinism theory 64
2.3.2 Cultural determinism theory 66
2.3.3 Materialist
determinism theory 67
2.3.4 Gender
equality theory 68
2.4 Theoretical
Framework 70
2.4.1 Theoretical
perspective on gender 72
2.5 Conceptual
Framework 73
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY
3.1 The
Study Area 80
3.2 Population
of the Study 83
3.3 Sample
Size and Sampling Procedure 83
3.4 Data
Collection 84
3.5 Test
of Validity of Instrument 85
3.6 Reliability of Instrument 85
3.7
Data Analysis 86
3.8
Measurement of Variables and Model Specification 86
3.9 Test
of Hypotheses 90
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Socio-Economic
Characteristics of Male and Female arable Crop Farmers in the
Level of Use
of Organic and Inorganic Agro-Inputs in
the Study Area. 95
4.1.1 Age of
respondents 95
4.1.2 Marital status of respondents 96
4.1.3 Major occupation 96
4.1.4 Educational level of respondents 98
4.1.5 Annual farm income of respondents (N,000) 99
4.1.6 Extension contact of respondents 99
4.1.7 Method of land acquisition 100
4.1.8 Farm size (ha) 101
4.1.9 Household size of respondents 102
4.1.10 Farming experience of respondents 102
4.1.11 Membership of cooperative organizations of
respondents 103
4.1.12 Respondents access to credit 104
4.2 Mean Scores of
Respondents Level of Use of Inorganic Agro-inputs in Benue
and Imo
States 105
4.3 Mean Scores of
Respondents Level of Use of Organic
Agro-inputs in Benue
and Imo
States 109
4.4 Gender Roles
Differentiation in the Application of Organic Agro-inputs in
Benue and Imo State 113
4.5 Gender
Roles Differentiation in the Application of Inorganic agro-inputs
in Benue and Imo States 116
4.6 Constraints
Faced by Respondents in the Level of Use of Organic Agro-inputs
in Benue and Imo States 119
4.7 Constraints
Faced by Respondents in the Level of Use of Inorganic Agro-inputs
in Benue and Imo State 122
4.6 Test
of Hypotheses 125
CHAPTER 5:
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1
Summary 137
5.2
Conclusion 140
5.3
Recommendations 141
References 143
Appendices
LIST OF FIGURES
2.1 Conceptual
framework for gender analysis of organic and inorganic
agro-inputs use among arable crop farmers in Benue and
Imo States,
Nigeria. 79
2 Map of Nigeria showing the study
area 82
LIST OF
TABLES
4.1 Socio-economic characteristics of male
and female respondents in
the
study area. 97
4.2 Mean
distribution of respondents based on the level of use of
inorganic
agro-inputs in Benue and Imo States
106
4.3 Mean distribution of respondents based on the
level of use of
organic agro-inputs in Benue and Imo States 111
4.4 Distribution
of respondents according to gender roles in the
application
of organic agro-inputs 114
4.5 Distribution of
respondents according to gender roles in the application
of inorganic agro-inputs (%) scores 116
4.6 Mean distribution of
respondents based on constraints faced in the level of
use of organic agro-inputs
120
4.7 Mean distribution of respondents based on constraints faced in the
level of
use of inorganic agro-inputs 122
4.8a Ordinary least square regression estimate of the influence of
selected
socio-economic characteristics on male farmers` use of
organic agro-inputs 125
4.8b Ordinary least square regression estimate of
the influence of selected
socio-economic characteristics on female
farmers’ use of
organic
agro-inputs 127
4.9a Ordinary least square regression estimate of
the influence of
selected
socio-economic characteristics on male farmers’ use of
in-organic
agro-inputs 128
4.9b Ordinary least square regression estimate of
the influence of
selected
socio-economic characteristics on female farmers’ use of
in-organic
agro-inputs 130
4.10 Z-test comparative analysis of the difference
in the level of use of
organic agro-inputs between
male and female crop farmers in the
study area 131
4.11 Z-test comparative analysis of the level of use
of inorganic
agro-inputs
between male and female crop farmers in the study area 132
4.12 Z-test comparative analysis of the level of use
of organic agro-inputs
among male farmers in Benue
and Imo States 133
4.13 Z-test comparative analysis of the Level of use
of organic agro-inputs
among female farmers` in
Benue and Imo States 134
4.14 Z-test comparative analysis
of the Level of use of inorganic agro-inputs
among male farmers in Benue
and Imo States 135
4.15 Z-test comparative analysis
of the level of use of inorganic agro-inputs
among female farmers in Benue
and Imo States 136
CHAPTER
1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND
OF THE STUDY
Gender
is attributed as social differences that exit between men and women (Oladeebo,
2012). Gender is also conceived as a variable used to analyze roles, rights,
responsibilities, opportunities, incentives, costs, benefits and constraints
which relates to men and women (Kanu, 2012). According to Dickson, et al. (2014) gender constitutes one of
the determinants of how poverty is experienced and of wealth creation. They
further stated that the entitlements and rights of women and men to decision
making, opportunities and resources are based on socio-cultural norms rather
than on the rights and capabilities of women and men.
Agriculture is very important in the economy of
Nigeria because both male and female farmers turn out or make into being both
cash and food crops like rubber, oil palm, cocoa, rice, yam, cassava and even
vegetables. It also provides job opportunities for over 66% of the population
and equally adds to the overseas exchange earnings of the country, (International
Fund for Agricultural Development IFAD, 2014). Despite the discovery and
exploitation of crude oil agrculture remains a major sector which contributes
for about 40% of the country`s GDP (IFAD, 2014). As a matter of fact, it
generates household income and supplies food and raw materials for the majority
of the people (National Bureau of Statistics NBS, 2012).
The natural poverty of soils in Nigeria in particular
and in Sub-Saharan Africa is a contributing factor to insufficient food as a
result of low soil organic matter content (Shiyam & Binang, 2013).
Small-scale farmers turn out the bulk of food in Nigeria and have to embrace
the application of both organic and inorganic agro-inputs in order to boost
yield through bumper harvest (International Food Policy Research Institute
(IFPRI) (2011); Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO, 2013b).
In order to achieve agricultural efficiency in
developing Countries, adequate inputs are very necessary (Ajah and Nmadu,
2012). There is a strong suggestion that in developing Countries, technologies
and inputs needed to achieve better or enlarged productivity are inadequate or exorbitant to resource meager
farmers (Wiggins & Brooks, 2010). According to Druihe & Barreiro-Hurle
(2012) unavailability and un-affordability of inorganic fertilizers are among
the problems hampering arable crop yield in Nigeria.
Although inorganic fertilizers increase yield in the
short run, but it may be both uneconomical and environmentally unfriendly
(Shiyam & Binang, 2013). The authors stated that organic fertilizer unlike
the inorganic option is environmentally sustainable and able to achieve
increased agricultural productivity. According to Adeoluwa (2010), organic
farming is a form of agriculture which excludes the utilization of compound
fertilizers, herbicides, pesticides, plant growth regulators and livestock feed
additives. Therefore, organic materials
like animal droppings, green mulch, palm bunch ash, wood ash, cocoa pods, rice
mill wastes, kitchen wastes are applied to boost productivity. Oyeniran (2011)
defined natural crop growing as the process of producing food naturally. He
further declared that it is based on smallest use of off-farm inputs and
management practices that enhance, maintain, and return environmental unity or
agreement. Conventional agriculture has become one of the favored options for
the production of safe, highly nutritious food and long term sustainability.
In Nigeria both men and women play very important and
vital roles in socio-economic activities in the community as well as family
levels through survival agriculture. It is very obvious that the contribution
of both men and women in crop production and food security is the unexploited
green oil of Nigeria. However, rural women have less access than men to the
resources and opportunities they need to be fully productive in agriculture and
to ensure food security, nutrition and well-being of their families and future
generations. For example, because of legal and cultural constraints affecting
land inheritance, ownership and use worldwide, fewer than 20 percent of
landholders are women in every Millennium Development Goal (MDG) indicator for
which data are available, rural women are worse than rural men and worse than
urban women and men (Inter-Agency Task Force on Rural Women, 2012: 36).
Although women farmers make up the majority of farmers
in Nigeria, yet they have less right to use fruitful resources and government
support than men (ActionAid, 2011). A
study carried out by Adepoju et al.,
(2013) revealed that about 42.3 percent of male and 22.1 percent of female
farmers practiced mulching. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) is actively
promoting various organic methods of soil fertilization and repair, including
conservation farming, with cover crops and lower zero tillage, agro-forestry,
nitrogen-fixing legumes, composting and crop rotation (FAO, 2011a).
A management approach known as incorporated top soil
richness (ISFM) recognizes the need for both organic and chemical inputs to improve
soil health, and acknowledge that no one size will fit all. In Borno State,
Nigeria, Kwaghe et al, (2011)
reported that female and male farmers use agricultural waste comprising crop
residues and animal wastes whose cost is about 4% of the farmers` total annual
revenue.
Similarly Yusuf et
al, (2013) also discussed sustainable agricultural practices where farmers
dig pits and the water accumulated was used for all year round farming thereby
reducing the socio-economic costs of drilling boreholes for irrigation
activities and simultaneously restoring fauna to an otherwise waste land. A
study conducted by SPORE (2011), also
stated that majority of small-scale farmers (70%) practice organic farming
because of the prohibitive costs of chemical fertilizers and other
agrochemicals. SPORE (2011) further stated that organic farm produce store
longer and taste better than inorganic farm produce. Traditionally, female and
male farmers equally engage in composting to provide adequate natural manures
to their farms at the subsistence levels. Organic farming in Nigeria rely
heavily on animal manure, crop residues, green manures, legumes, kitchen wastes
and mineral-bearing rocks to feed the soil and supply plant nutrients.
This is in accordance with Nwachukwu (2010) who
reported that application of compost crop alternation practice, planting of
home grown or local varieties, intercropping, varied cropping, use of crop
residues, mulching of crops, animal manure, planting of legumes, green manure,
off-farm organic wastes, lane cropping and least tillage are the technologies
in organic farming practiced by female and male farmers in Imo State of
Nigeria. Also a study conducted by
Koledoye et al, (2013) revealed that
in soil management practices, 59.6 percent of male and 39.7 of female
respondents practiced bush fallowing, 25.0 percent of male and just 13.2
percent of female farmers engaged in cover cropping. Whereas only 11.5 percent
of male and none of female practiced crop rotation respectively. According to
FAO (2008) conventional farming provides ecological goods and services.
As rightly put by Kang (2007) mainstreaming of gender
at all levels in the agricultural sector should be actively done so that the
issue of gender disparities will be addressed properly. Nevertheless, women
still encounter several challenges even though they are the key part of
conservative cultivation (Kandiwa, 2013). Ayinde et al. (2013a) agreed that it is very important to strategize so
that men and women`s experiences and concerns at the onset of investigation
design, implementation, monitoring and assessment are well deliberated. This
means looking at the socio-economic settings of women and men to guarantee
equal benefits often referred to as gender mainstreaming.
The issue of gender differences as it relates to farm
productivity in subsistence farming has been of special interest from the
beginning to policy makers in developing countries like Nigeria (Mabundza et al., 2014; Kabeer, 2016; Rola-Rubzen et al., 2016; Morgan et al., 2016). An empirical study had
found out that female farmers have lower crop yields than male farmers (Larson et al., 2015). It has been established from studies that
women are likely to have less land to cultivate than men, and when they do,
tenure security or right may be weaker or totally not available (Doss, 2015;
Cadzow, 2016). Also women access to technology, information and agricultural
extension services tend to be more limited compared with men (Bravo-Monroy et al, 2016).
In the area of growing crops, women are more
vulnerable to be constrained in their access to inputs, resulting in lower
levels of fertilizer, labor and other inputs than is necessary (Oseni et al., 2015; Cadzow 2016). A number of
factors like lack of contact to credit, illiteracy, lack of information, skill,
machinery and scarcity of land could be responsible in the disparity linking
female and male farmers in the level of use of agricultural inputs in many
developing countries like Nigeria.
Another point is that men and women usually have
diverse or dissimilar agricultural production functions, due to the fact that
crop choice differs by sexual category. This may be influenced by lack of
resources coupled with artistic norms and also ethinically accepted division of
labour in the cultivation of specific crops. Although natural manure contains
plant nutrients in small quantities when compared with chemical fertilizer,
however the existence of growth promoting values like hormones and enzymes are
essential for the improvement of soil richness and productivity (Bhuma, 2007).
It is very necessary to increase agricultural productivity
in Nigeria, and this is being done through the introduction and use of improved
agricultural technologies like chemical fertilizers. Generally, the term
fertilizer describes additives that increase soil fertility and its capacity of
producing abundant crops.
Nutrients are materials provided through the
application of fertilizer to enhance the fertility of the soil; this could be
in form of inorganic or natural materials which include animal dung and
compounds containing Nitrogen, Phosphorous and Potassium (NPK). This may be spread
on or incorporated into the soil to augment its capacity to retain dampness,
nutrients and thereby support plant development (Houghton et al, 2011).
A study conducted by Koledoye et al, (2013) revealed that 100.00 percent of male as against 97.10
percent of female farmers used inorganic fertilizer. Also male plot managers
are more likely to use inputs such as fertilizer (42%and 19%), herbicides (26
percent and 6 percent) than female plot managers. However, only about 16% of
the soil resources in Africa have no serious limitation for crop production
(Adesina, 2012).
Furthermore, prolific soils have been lost through
deforestation, corrosion, flood and encroachment of the desert which hitherto
has led to poor yield (Babatunde, 2005). Although organic manure and plant
residues are important sources of nutrient however they are unable to supply
all the nutrients needed to grow adequate food. Consequently, there is no
alternative or option for compound fertilizers in meeting the nutrients
required for plant development.
Moreover, it is only when proper soil richness is
maintained that new crop varieties can achieve their hereditary potentials in
terms of improved yield. This can be achieved efficiently and on a large scale
through augmented use of fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides (Babatunde,
2005). Agrochemical could be described as a wide range of pesticides,
herbicides, insecticides, and sometimes including fungicides. It may also
include inorganic fertilizers, chemical growth agents and hormones as well as
other intense stores of raw animal manure (Larry, 2012). Several agricultural
chemical are toxic and can pose danger to human health (WHO, 2008); hence their
use is highly regulated internationally, nationally and regionally with
regulations and conventions.
Methods or process for handling, application and
disposal of used agrochemical cans are often mandatory. The utilization of
agrochemical like NPK, Urea, Phostoxin, Furadan, Apron-plus, Dazel, Paraquate,
Glyphosate even though they boost yield, however the products are made up of
less natural materials. Agrochemical many at times are very hurtful or
injurious to human beings and also could cause great danger to the surrounding.
The adoption of fertilizers and herbicides in
intensive farms is seen as the only hope of feeding the expanding world
population. However, wrong application of chemical fertilizers, pesticides and
herbicides can lead to environmental degradation through the destruction of
biodiversity and pollution of the environment. Government promoted the use of
agrochemical in other to achieve and sustain national food security and improve
the production of export crops. The cultivation of crops is accompanied by the
application of agrochemical. Female and male farmers are increasingly relying
on the application of inorganic fertilizers mainly because the soils are poor,
and indigenous crop types are being replaced mostly by improved high yielding
crop varieties which are deep nutrient miners.
Majority of crops cultured by farmers are short period
in nature, which may be similarly vulnerable or prone to many insects and
diseases. They eat up the plants and also replicate on them. Therefore, farmers
have no choice than to use agrochemical to fight against attack from insects
and diseases (Larry, 2012). Agricultural policies in Nigeria have generally
followed the path of modernism, that is the desire to break up with the past
(traditional agriculture considered to be unproductive or unfruitful). Previous
policies and programmes targeted at improving the productivity of smallholder
farmers relied on technical assistance through the provision of external inputs
such as fertilizers, herbicides, insecticides and hybrid seeds.
Agricultural modernization is still regarded as the
key to achieving food security and economic growth in Nigeria. Inorganic
fertilizer refers to chemical mixture used to improve soil fertility. Inorganic
fertilizer examples NPK, Urea, Calcium nitrate and Single Super Phosphate (SSP)
is differentiated from organic fertilizer (such as animal manure, compost or
other green mulch) by its manufacture, chemical modification and external
purchase. Herbicides like Dragon, Paraquat, Vinash, Slasher and Weed-off and
pesticides like Phostoxin, Termicide, Snipper, Vetox 85, Fernasan D and
Apron-plus (also called farm chemical or agrochemical) are primarily inorganic
spray applied to expand agriculturally productive land and increase crop yields
through pests, bacteria and weed destruction or control.
Multiple cropping practices in organic farming boost
biodiversity which enhances productivity, resilience and contributes to a
healthy farming system (Abdullahi and Kutama, 2012). Furthermore the use of
inert or chemical fertilizers may attract more weeds on the plot thereby
necessitating the use of herbicides to check-mate weed infestation. Irrigation
system helps to secure adequate soil moisture for proper use of inert
fertilizer, and hence improve seed varietal growth. Rosegrant et al, (2014), stated that using a crop
model incorporating climate change scenario, predict massive gains to combining
nitrogen at efficient levels with irrigated maize and rice in sub-Saharan
Africa.
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Inequality in the right to use agricultural assets
among female and male farmers has always been linked with production
inefficiency. Moreover interventions targeting small holder farmers especially
women often fail to redress the right to use and manage agricultural resources
(Quisumbing and Pandolfelli, 2010). Notwithstanding the important role female
farmers play in agricultural production, earlier work in Nigeria showed that
women have comparatively little right to direct agricultural farmland, have
lower levels of agro-inputs and use less extension services compared with their
male counterparts (Phillip et al,
2009).
According to British Council (2012) women own 4
percent of land in the North/east, and just over 10 percent in the South/east
and South/west. The World Bank (2014) reported gender disparity in plots
managed by men and women in Northern and Southern zones. Key gender differences
exists in land size, fertilizer use, labour and other household characteristics.
Assuming women farmers have the same right and
management over agricultural resources like men, they could probably boost
yields on their farms by 20-30%. This may however raise total crop yield in
emerging countries like Nigeria by 2.5 to 4% (FAO, 2014). In Borno State also,
the levels of women`s access to production resources, including macrobiotic and
inorganic agricultural resources, family and hired labor and land was reported
to be low (Ojo et al., 2012). Gender
disparity remains a drastic challenge to the advancement of human resources.
Women and girls have made major strides since 1990 to
gain equity sexual category yet to no avail. Very often, girls and women are
discriminated against in various areas of life venture such as agricultural
participation and labor market with negative representations for their
capabilities and liberty to make choices (United Nations Development Programme (UNDP,
2014).
This section, therefore, tries to ascertain the effect
of gender inequality on agricultural development and how it can be used to
enhance sustainable human resources development in Nigeria. Inputs in the form
of improved seeds, fertilizers, herbicides and pesticides are available in
Nigeria to both rural men and women farmers. However, men (74%) had more right
to these inputs than women (67%) therefore confirming the FAO (2011) observation
that there is a wide gender gap/disparity in agricultural inputs usage. For
example male headed households use more inorganic agro-inputs than their female
counterparts in many countries (FAO, 2011).
In a related development, Nasiru and Rahji (2012)
studied the availability of productive resources in Nigeria and concluded that
female headed households suffered less right to vital information, credit
services and farmlands. These women were actually more productive and had
higher income than men when all necessary production inputs are made available
to them at least at an equal level with the male farmers.
Overall, women`s access to land in African societies
is quite restricted, even in cases where the law protects women`s right to
land, traditional customs inhibit their right and power over land (National
Population Commission (NPC, 2013). This agrees with Odoemelam et al, (2014) who stated that women have
to beg for farmlands from their husbands and relations hence, women
marginalization.
This inequitable access to resources has remained the
basic factor reinforcing gender dichotomy because women farmers are competing
with men farmers for the same basic resources in the most patriarchal
entitlement system. This has negative effect on the productivity of women
farmers and tend to slow economic growth, making rise from poverty more
difficult (World Bank, 2007). “We are nonetheless able to state with some
certainty that women typically own less land than do men and that their
agricultural plots tend to be smaller than men`s” (Doss et al.,2013). Also the
rising poverty among female farmers in Nigeria is assuming a worrisome
dimension as empirical studies have shown becaue of disparity in the
utilization of productive resources (Babatunde, 2014).
Reports from different countries found that women use
fewer inputs than men, have fewer meetings with extension agents, find it more
difficult to access credit, and as a result their productivity is lower (Doss et al., 2011; Peterman et al., 2014; and Oseni et al. 2014). Women have been rated high
as the backbone of the development of rural and natural economies and they
represent 43% of the global agricultural labor and productivity.
A study of farm credit schemes conducted in Africa
found that women were able to get only 10% share of loans that was released for
agriculture. Statistics on women`s yields, technology, utilization of farm
agricultural inputs and adoption rates are rarely reported (FAO, 2009). World
Bank (2013) reported that women make up about 60-80% of agricultural labor in
Nigeria, depending on the region, and that they produce two-thirds of staple
crops.
In Africa, 80% of agricultural production activities
are carried out by small holder farmers, who are mostly rural women, yet they
do not have the right and power over farmlands and prolific resources like
inorganic fertilizers, pesticides herbicides among others (Mucavele and Mugede,
2015).
Mohammed (2012) stated that agrochemical
use among farmers has not been significant, as to increase agricultural output,
the problem is more compounded among rural women farmers because of the gender
bias issues in agricultural policy making and implementation. Both men and
women contribute to agricultural production significantly, yet their access to
these agricultural resources differ (Quisumbing et al., 2014; FAO, 2010).
There is an unpleasant signal that inequality in
sexual characteristics as well as lack of attention to gender in agricultural
advancement adds to low income, high rate of poverty smaller output, as well as
under nutrition. Unequal gender dealings that leave women in a subordinated
position to men prevail despite government assurance or dedication all over the
world to gender equality. Despite the fact that women are key part to the
majority in agricultural production, yet they face intricate challenges in
various ways (Kandiwa, 2013). In the area of growing crops, women are more
vulnerable to be constrained in their access to inputs, resulting in lower
levels of fertilizer, labor and other inputs than is necessary (Oseni et al,
2015; Cadzow, 2016). According to Quisumbing et al. (2014) agriculture is under performing because half of women
farmers do not have the same right with men to resources and opportunities
earmarked for agricultural production in the country.
A woman
empowered to make choice about planting materials and inputs will be more
fruitful in agriculture than one who could not. The agricultural sector is
under performing in many developing countries, in part because women unlike men
farmers do not have same right to the resources and opportunities they need to
be more productive. Small holder farmers currently produce 90 percent of food
in Africa and around half of all food world-wide (ActionAid, 2010).
However, women face great challenges in agriculture
mainly because of their deprived right to inputs coupled with their relative
need for learning and trouble of voluntary domestic work (Phillip et al. 2009). Ogunlela and Mukthar (2009),
explains that high levels of gender imbalance combined with social, religious,
physical and biological factors promote discrimination against women in terms
of employment, education and access to resources. These farmers` have farm
holdings in the range of about 1.0-3.0 hectares of farmland.
They also form the bedrock of agricultural enhancement
in several African countries (Ogunlela and Mukthar, 2009). According to
Oyeniran (2011) natural agriculture is a distinct process of producing food
naturally. He further affirmed that it is based on minimal or smallest use of
off-farm inputs and organization practices which maintains, restores and
enhances environmental synchronization. Organic farming has become the most
favored option for the production of safe, highly nutritious food and long term
sustainability (Oyeniran, 2011).
The idea behind organic farming is 'zero impact' on
the environment hence the motto of the organic farmer is to protect the earth`s
resources and produce safe, healthy food. Organic farming uses natural
regulation and crop diversity to prevent pests and diseases. As reported by
Adeoluwa (2010), natural farming is a form of agriculture which excludes the
utilization of chemical or synthetic fertilizers and pesticides, plant growth
regulators and livestock feed additives. Therefore, organic materials like
animal droppings, green mulch, palm bunch ash, wood ash, cocoa pods, rice mill
wastes, kitchen wastes are applied to boost productivity. He further
highlighted the benefits of organic manure which incluude increases in soil
fertility; improvement in water conservation; increases in production more than
inorganic fertilizer; easier to access than any other fertilizer; is less
capital intensive and retains soil fertility over time.
There is inequality and disparities as it regards
gender in the utilization of organic and inorganic agro-inputs in Benue and Imo
States. Gender influences human beings in different ways, but it is unknown how
this influence affects them whether positively or negatively. The researcher`s interest was to find out the
influence gender has on male and female arable crop farmers in the application
or utilization of organic and inorganic agro-inputs, as well as to identify
similar or diverging constraints in accessing agricultural resources. This
study addressed the following research questions:
1.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
1 What are the socio-economic
characteristics of male and female farmers?
2
What are the different types of inorganic
agro- inputs available?
3 What are the different types of
organic agro-inputs available?
4 What roles do male and female farmers
play in the application of organic agro-inputs?
5 What roles do male and female farmers play in
the application of inorganic agro-inputs ?
6 What are the constraints male and female
farmers face in the use of organic agro-inputs?
7 What
are the constraints male and female farmers face in the use of inorganic
agro-inputs in the study area?
1.4 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The major objective of the study was to
investigate the level of use of organic and inorganic agro inputs among male
and female arable crop farmers in Benue and Imo States, Nigeria.
The specific objectives were to:
i.
describe the
socio-economic characteristics of male and female crop farmers in the study
area,
ii.
identify the different
types of inorganic agro-inputs used by crop farmers;
iii.
find out the different
types of organic agro-inputs used by crop farmers;
iv.
determine gender roles differentiation
in the use of organic agro-inputs;
v.
determine gender roles differentiation
in the use of inorganic agro-inputs;
vi.
ascertain constraints male
and female farmers face in the use of organic agro-inputs;
vii.
ascertain constraints
male and female farmers face in the use of inorganic agro-inputs in the study area.
1.5 HYPOTHESES
The following hypotheses were tested
H01: There is no significant relationship between
farmers` selected socio-economic characteristics and the use of organic agro-inputs
H02: There is no significant relationship between
farmers` selected socio-economic characteristics and the use of inorganic
agro-inputs
HO3: There is no significant difference in the
use of organic agro-inputs between male and female crop farmers in the study area
HO4: There is no significant difference in the use
of inorganic agro-inputs between male and female crop farmers in the study area
HO5:
There is no significant difference in the use of organic agro-inputs among male
farmers in Benue and Imo States.
Ho6: There
is no significant difference in the use of organic agro-inputs amongfemale
farmers in Benue and Imo States.
HO7: There
is no significant difference in the use of inorganic agro-inputs among male
farmers in Benue and Imo States.
HO8: There
is no significant difference in the use of inorganic agro-inputs among female
farmers in Benue and Imo States
1.6 JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY
The question that arises for debate about gender has
become mainly a sensitive issue in the world today. Currently we hear and speak
about gender equality, emancipation and liberation in almost every facet or
sphere of human endeavor. The utilization of natural agro-input materials
predominantly or mainly poultry droppings, green mulch, cow dung, wood ash,
palm bunch ash, neem extract, kitchen waste and back garden manure which serve
or provide soil amendments is suitable for plant growth and also boosts crop
yield especially among rural male and female arable crop farmers in Nigeria.
Therefore, conscious efforts have been made by
successive governments to promote the use of improved seeds, fertilizers and
other agrochemicals to address food insecurity and poverty challenges. This
research serves as a guide to policy makers with special regards to the access
and the utilization of natural and artificial agro-inputs by gender in Nigeria
and particularly in the study area.
It will equally sharpen policy framework with the view
to improving the availability of natural and artificial agro-inputs supplies to
rural farmers for sustainable agricultural production in Nigeria. This will be
achieved by looking at the constraints that farmers encounter in the
utilization of agricultural productive resources. Consequently, it will also
serve as a working document for theory formulation and practice on issues
concerning gender involvement and the influence it has in the application of
organic and inorganic agro-inputs.
Researchers would find the results of this study as a
veritable tool. Although several researches have been conducted in this area,
but it was observed that the reports of such researches were found in bits in
various journals.
This makes it difficult for researchers to understand,
access and extract adequate knowledge from such investigations. Hence this
study would provide accumulated information on the result of such
investigations. . Therefore, a comprehensive study like this will create an
enabling environment in the Nigerian agricultural sector.
As a way forward this study will serve as a data bank
to researchers, Centre for Gender studies, Federal Ministry of Agriculture and
other individuals who might be interested in this area of study. Nutrients from
organic sources are released slowly and consistently which prevents the
possibility of a boom-and-bust pattern. Farmers` benefit from utilization of
natural agro-inputs frequently because it increases the organic matter content
of the soil with subsequent long term effect on crop yield. This enhances the
biological, corporal and compound properties of the soils with increasing
organic manure.
At the same time increase in soil natural carbon pool
in root zone, significantly increases crops like (wheat, maize and rice) yield.
The implication of the result is that productivity can be improved by linking
farmers to inputs markets through improvement in infrastructure and creating an
enabling environment for input dealers to locate closely to farming
communities. This study seems significant in the area of Agricultural Extension
Education Service reform.
The result will lead to the recruitment and training
of more female extension agents to disseminate adequate information and
innovation flow to female farmers as it relates to the right and application of
natural and inert agro-inputs. This will ensure that production inputs get to
the real farmers and that extension agents direct equal attention to both
female and male arable crop farmers. Most
importantly a study of this nature has no doubt added to the already existing
body of knowledge as it regards gender and the utilization of natural and
artificial agro-inputs. Moreover, the scientific publications that will arise
from this study will be directed at the academic or research community. Also
young professionals will gain immensely from the study.
1.7 SCOPE OF THE STUDY
The study was conducted in Benue and Imo States,
Nigeria. The study concentrated mainly on arable crop farmers` in the two
states, therefore further studies should be carried out to cover other
agro-ecological zones of Nigeria. The focus of the study on South-East and
North-Central agro-ecological zones was to make ecological comparisons to help
identify the disparities that male and female crop farmers encounter as well as
to identify similar or diverging constraints in the utilization of natural and
chemical agro-inputs across the States. The researcher focused on the
objectives of the study and other variables relating to the hypotheses for
effective analysis.
1.8 DEFINITION OF TERMS
Gender:
is conceived as a variable used to analyze roles, rights, responsibilities,
opportunities, incentives, costs, benefits and constraints which relates to men
and women (Kanu, 2012).
Gender Analysis
According to Ityarvyarl (2008), investigation in sexual category is a
systematic effort to understand and document the tasks and responsibilities of
females and males of different social status, age, and ethnicity as shaped by
beliefs, values, norms, traditions and access to resources.
Inorganic
Fertilizer refers to a nitrogen-based chemical
mixture used to improve soil fertility. Examples are: N.P.K (multi-purpose
fertilizer), Urea, Calcium nitrate (CAN), Single Supper Phosphate (SSP) and
Muriate of Potash (MOP).
Organic manures
are non chemical substances applied or incorporated into the soil for plant
uptake. They could be plant or animal materials. For the purpose of this study,
organic manures include poultry droppings, goat dung, cow dung, kitchen waste,
green mulch, cocoa pods, compost manure, palm bunch ash, wood ash among others.
Pesticides are
chemical substances that kill pests examples are phostoxin, Apron-plus,
Termicide and Snipper.
Improved and
genetically modified seed varieties are
artificially produced by cross-pollination to increase yield, uniformity and
resistance to diseases. Examples are Maize, Rice, Cassava, Wheat, Bailey and
potato.
Organic pesticide
and weed control measures
Organic agriculture uses natural regulation and crop
diversity to prevent pests, weeds and diseases. Organic farmers integrate
enriching, involuntary, organic, and physical knowledge or understanding to
manage weeds excluding the use of herbicides. In this study, farmers used neem
extract, wood ash, palm bunch ash, predators, Hand picking of insects to
control pests, weeds and diseases.
Herbicides
are chemical substances use to destroy or inhibit the growth of weeds and other
unnecessary plant pests (terrestrial or aquatic). Examples are Dragon, Paraquat, Weed-off and
Dazel.
Gender
Mainstreaming is distinct because it is the method
or practice by which men and women could evaluate the implications of any
intended action, may be in the legislation, programmes or policies that concern
them at all levels and areas of life undertaking United Nations Educational
Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO, (2015).
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