THE EFFECTS OF SOIL MANAGEMENT PRACTICES ON THE POVERTY STATUS OF SMALLHOLDER FARMERS IN ENUGU STATE, NIGERIA

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ABSTRACT

This study evaluates the effects of soil management practices (SMPs) on the poverty status of smallholder farmers in Enugu State, Nigeria. It investigates how socio-economic characteristics, types, and use levels of SMPs influence farmers' livelihoods and identifies constraints limiting their effective implementation. Employing a multi-stage random sampling technique, data were collected from 180 smallholder farmers using structured questionnaires and oral interviews. Analytical methods included descriptive statistics, Tobit regression, logit models, Foster-Greer-Thorbecke (FGT) poverty measures, and z-tests. The findings reveal that smallholder farmers in Enugu State are predominantly male (65.6%), with a mean age of 45 years, suggesting active engagement in farming. Most respondents (94.4%) are literate, but technical innovations from extension services are largely inaccessible, with 56% of farmers reporting no contact. The study identified common SMPs, such as organic manure, multiple cropping (100%), shifting cultivation (75%), and bush fallowing (68.9%). However, adoption levels remain low, with 59.4% of farmers categorized as low users of SMPs, likely due to financial constraints and limited awareness. The analysis of poverty among farmers revealed a poverty line of ₦373.55 ($0.98) per person per day, with 65.6% of households classified as poor. Determinants of poverty included age, education, household size, access to credit, net farm income, and SMP adoption levels. Notably, higher use of SMPs was associated with improved poverty outcomes, demonstrating their potential to enhance productivity and income. Constraints such as inadequate funding, insufficient extension services, and land tenure issues further hindered SMP adoption. The study concludes that farmers predominantly utilize traditional and low-cost SMPs, which limit productivity and perpetuate poverty. It calls for strategic policy interventions to address these challenges and enhance SMP adoption. Recommendations include promoting education and extension services, providing subsidized farm inputs, and implementing land reform policies to improve access to productive land. This research highlights the critical role of sustainable soil management in poverty alleviation and provides a foundation for policymakers to design targeted interventions that foster agricultural productivity, enhance livelihoods, and reduce poverty among smallholder farmers in Enugu State.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

TABLE OF CONTENTS

 

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1       Background of the Study

1.2     Problem Statement

1.3     Objectives of the Study

1.4     Hypotheses of the Study

1.5     Significance of the Study

 

CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1     Conceptual Literature

2.1.1 Soil management practices

2.1.2 Agronomic soil management practices

2.1.3  Tillagesoil management practices.

2.1.4  Mechanical soil management practices

2.2     Challenges Of Farmers In Soil Management Practices

2.2.1 Biological factors

2.2.2 Chemical factors

2.2.3 Physical factors

2.3     Concept Of Poverty

2.3.1 Measuring poverty

2.3.2 Operational definition ofpoverty for the study

2.4     Small Holder Farmers

2.5     Theoretical Literature

2.5.1 Theory of poverty

2.5.2 Theory of soil management practices

2.6     Empirical Literature Review

2.7     Analytical Framework

2.7.1 Descriptive statistics

2.7.2 Logit regression model

2.7.3 FGT model

2.7.4 Tobit regression model

 

CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

3.1     Study Area

3.2     Sampling Technique

3.3     Method of Data Collection

3.4     Method of Data Analysis

3.5     Model Specification

 

CHAPTER 4

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1     Socio-Economic Characteristics of Smallholder Farmers in the Study Area

4.1.1 Age

4.1.2 Gender

4.1.3 Marital Status

4.1.4 Household Size

4.1.5 Educational Attainment

4.1.6 Extension Contacts

4.1.7 Farm Size

4.2     Types of Soil Management Practices among Smallholder Farmers in Enugu State

4.3     Use Levels of Soil Management Practices By Smallholder Farmers In Enugu State.

4.3.1  Use Level of Soil Management Practices

4.3.2  Classification of Use Levels Of Soil Managemnt Practices (Smp)

4.4     Determinants of Use Level of Soil Management Practices among Smallholder Farmers in Enugu State

4.5     Estimated Poverty Line and Status of Smallholder Farmersin Enugu State

4.6     Determinants of Smp Use Levels and Other Factors on Poverty Status of Smallholder Farmers in Enugu State

4.7     Comparing the Poverty Status of High And Low Users of Soil Management Practices

4.8     Constraints to the Use of Soil Management Practices by Smallholder Farmers in Enugu State

 

CHAPTER 5

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1     Summary Of Findings

5.2     Conclusion

5.3     Recommendations                    

References

 

 

 

 

LIST OF TABLES

 

Table 4.1:   Distribution of smallholder farmers according to age

Table 4.2:   Distribution of smallholder farmers based on gender

Table 4.3:   Distribution of respondents according to marital status

Table 4.4:   Distribution of respondents according to household size

Table4.5:    Distribution of Respondents According to educational attainment

Table 4.6:   Distribution of Respondents based on extension Visit/contacts

Table 4.7:   Distribution of farmers based on farm size

Table 4.8:   Distribution of farmers according to types of Soil Management Practices

Table 4.9:   Distribution of the smallholder farmers based on use levels of soil management practices in the study area

Table 4.10: Classification of the smallholder farmers based on the use levels of the SMP

Table 4.11: Estimated determinants of use level of soil management practices among smallholder farmers

Table 4.12: Mean per capita per monthly expenditure of smallholder farmers in Enugu State

Table 4.13 Estimated poverty line

Table 4.14: Poverty status of the household farmers

Table 4.15: Estimated determinants of poverty among smallholder farmers in the study area

Table 4.16: Z-test Analysis of the Mean poverty status of high users and low users of soil management practices

Table 4.17: Constraints in the use of soil management practices

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

 

1.1    BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

 

Agriculture is the systematic raising of useful plants and livestock under the management of man.The practice of agriculture is based on systematized body of knowledge (science) and requires skill (art) (Rimando, 2004). Agriculture involves the cultivation of the soil for growing of crops and raising of animals for human needs.  Crops areplantswhich are useful to man while livestock stands for both domesticated animals and poultry. The cultivation of crops and raising of animals are practiced for the purpose of producing food and other human needs such as clothing, shelter, medicines, ornaments, and also practiced as a business for economic gain. Agriculture plays a very important role in developing economies through the provision of food and income (World Bank, 2015).It is the primary means of income generation in rural economies.In developing countries, agriculture remains a soil based industry. Soil is a major factor in the agricultural economy andas long as agriculture remains a soil-based industry, major increases in agricultural productivity are likely to be attained through soil management practices (SMP) which ensure that plants have adequate and balanced supply of nutrients. The challenge for agriculture to meet the developing countries̕increasing demand for food in a sustainable way is still far-fetched. The developing countries̕population growth and the associated land fragmentation are forcing farmers to cultivate on small plots that are hardly suitable for soil improvement practices (World Bank, 2006; Food and Agricultural Organization-FAO, 2010 and International Fund for Agricultural Development- IFAD, 2011).

 

Soil is the loose surface material consisting of inorganic particles and organic matter that covers most of the land surface. Soil provides structural support and source of water and nutrients for plants used in agriculture. It sustains most living organisms, being the ultimate source of their mineral nutrients.Healthy soil is essential for the production of crops used to feed humans and livestock. In addition to providing a stable base to support plant roots, soil stores water and nutrients required for plant growth (FAO, 2009).Soils in most developing African countries have inherent low fertility as a result of poor and inadequate soil management practices.

Managing our soils sustainably is very crucial for agricultural production and ecosystems. Good management of soils ensures that mineral elements do not become deficient or toxic to plants, and that appropriate mineral elements enter the food chain.Soil management practices are an integral part of land management which focuses on differences in soil types and soil characteristics.Fred (2011) stated that soil management practice (SMP) is a device that protects the soil from degradation, increases in nutrients with locally sourced products from farm, such as recycled crop residue and animal soil conservation, soil amendment, and optimal soilhealth. Soil management practice however contributes immensely to agricultural production and productivity as it provides protective waste products used for crop growth.Soilmanagement concerns all operations, practices, and treatments used to protect soiland enhance its performance (such as soil fertility or soil mechanics). It includes soil cover, enhance soil physical and chemical properties, improve soil fertility and plant nutrient, facilitate pest management, reduce soil water evaporation and equally reduce weed competition. According to World Bank (2006) many farmers choose to use some soil management practices such as conservation tillage, crop rotation, and organic fertilization in order toprotect valuable soil resources. Sustainable soil management practices allow farmers to maintain healthy, productive soil for crops without degrading the environment and as a result, these reduce poverty amongst the smallholder farmers in Nigeria (FAO, 2006).

In West-Africa, soil management practices such as alley cropping where farmers grow crops between rows of trees has been found to increase yields, crop productivity and income of the rural farmers. This practice is sustainable as it enables the same plot to be cultivated over and over, thus eliminating the need for the continual burning of the rain-forest to get fertile plots (Magdoff and Van, 2001).According to the estimates of Batjes (2007) only 12% of African soils are moderately fertile or well drained, compared to 33% in Asia, while about 88% is infertile covering an area of about494 million hectares in the continent.Unfortunately, industrial agricultural practices continue to damage and deplete these valuable natural resources. While intensive ploughing and monocrop agriculture systems have caused nutrient depletion and wide-scale soil erosion, over-application of artificial fertilizers and pesticides contaminate soils thereby increasing the poverty level of the rural farmers (FAO, 2009).Apart from erosion,fertility loss is being hastened by reduction in fallow periods and the shift from conventional bush fallowing system to permanent cultivation caused by population pressure and agricultural activities (Ameyan and Ogidiolu, 1989). For example, about 70% of the increasing population in Nigeria derives their livelihood from agriculture therebyexposing the soil to various forms of degradation. FAO (2005) reported that Nigeria lost 1,214km of forest cover between 1990 – 1995; resulting in severe exposure of the soil to agents of soil degradation and consequently loss of soil productivityleading to low income of the farmers.The activities of most of the small holder farmers are characterized by large rural-based traditional method (FAO, 2005) which may also not be best suitable for a particular soil thereby causing depletion.Soil erosion by wind and water are the main processes by which topsoil is lost. However, low rate of soil erosion control can severely damage agricultural land; not only does erosion reduce the water-holding capacity of a given soil,  it also strips away nutrients and organic matter and when these happen, it may drastically affect the income of the smallholder farmers and hence result to the farmers being poor. In fact, soil removed by erosion contains about 3 times more nutrients and 1.5 to 5 times more organic matter than the soil that remains behind (Agbola et al., 2003). In many areas of the world, the loss of topsoil, either through mineral imbalance or erosion, is the single largest threat to agricultural productivity and farmer’s income. Gang et al. (2004) reported that soils with high soil surface roughness (SSR), such as those produced with conservation tillage, are less susceptible to erosion, and that there is an inverse relationship between SSR and soil porosity.

However, Agbanlahora et al.(2003) posited that farmers in the south-south Nigeria engage in unsustainable soil management practices in the area which results to low agricultural productivity and poor income of farmers. Soil management practices in the area include; improper removal of stubble or fallow cover leading to erosion, insufficient fallow time leading to decline in soil fertility, over production of single crop types leading to depletion, over removal of tree cover leading to water table elevation and/or salinity, over irrigation of farm lands leading to turbidity and salinity, excess tillage of fragile soils on erosion and over grazing of farm lands leading to desertification which encroaches farm lands of small holder farmers.Onwerenmadu et al. (2008) also reported that soil management  practices in most of the south eastern states is concomitant to soil erosion, soil nutrient depletion, decline in crop and low income of farmers. Good soil management practices are one of the ways to restore the declination of soil fertility, increase production, output, and farmer’s income and reduce their poverty. Good soil management practices can be a significant instrument for poverty reduction as it could increase farmer’s productivity, food security, income and standard of living.Traditionally, agricultural soils were fertilized using livestock manure, which is rich in nutrients and organic matter. Farmers also practice crop rotation, regularly alternating the types of crop grown in various fields and periodically allowing fields to remain unplanted. This process enables organic matter to accumulate and decompose, thus restoring nutrients to the soil (Aluko et al., 2000).

Ejike and Osuji (2013) further posited that over 50% of the farmers in Imo state have adopted sustainable soil management techniques (SSMT) which cut across applying manure regularly, growing cover crops in rotation with maize and cowpea, and multiple cropping systems, crop rotation and minimum tillage system, and planting of shelter belt around the farm. According to lwena (2008) these soil management practices seek to enhance soil nutrients, sustain crop growth and food without any adverse effect. Sustainable soil management techniques (SSMT) are practiced by farmers who are exposed to extension contacts and seek to improve their output levels (Classsen et al., 2004).Manuring and mulching, land fallows and cover cropping, zero tillage farming, strip cropping, adequate rotation, home gardens or compound farming, alley cropping, agroforestry system and addition of chemical fertilizers are mainly the remedial measures for tackling soil degradation by most farmers in the southeast.

Short-run goals of SMP may include conservation and efficient use of water resources, nutrient recycling, prevention of soil erosion and sustainable environment while the long-run goal is poised towards reduction in poverty status of farmers. SMP do not only sustain food production but maintains an upward shift in food production per unit area and farm income thereby forcing down poverty and food price fluctuations (Sedik, 2000).

Soil management is important, both directly and indirectly to crop productivity, environmental sustainability, and poverty reduction (FAO,2005). Because of the projected increase in world population and the consequent necessity for the intensification of food production, the management of soils becomes very important in agriculture, even in the years to come.According to Turner et al. (1994), there is need to avoid further degradation of soilsthrough erosion control, and to produce sufficient safe and nutritious food for healthy diets. Hence research is required in good soil management practices to avoid further degradation of soils, low crop yield, decline in food production and productivity through soil erosion and contaminationand to produce a sufficient safe and less susceptible soil to erosion and decrease the poverty status of smallholder farmers.Therefore,soil management practices at farm household level is the most critical factor for sustainable food crop production in south-east Nigeria and Enugu state in particular.It is based on this background that this study was carried out to investigate the effect of soil management practices on poverty status of small holder farmers in Enugu State,Nigeria.

1.2   PROBLEM STATEMENT

The agricultural sector in Nigeria has remained the largest and relatively the most important sector of the economy, not withstanding the enviable position of the oil sector in Nigeria̕s economy over the past three decades. It is estimated to be the largest contributor to the non-oil foreign exchange. Like in most developing countries, agriculture remains the backbone of Nigeria̕s economy. It is the largest source of employment, about two thirds of the population depends on farming for their livelihood. Inspite of the high proportion of the country’s population that is into agriculture, Nigeria has been experiencing rapid decrease in food productionleading to low income generation and increase in poverty among farmers in the past decades. Surveyreports show that though there has been a decrease in food production in Nigeria,local demand has consistently remained above production(Nigeria Bureau of Statistics-NBS, 2012).In a similar way, in spite of the soil management practices and land use policies formulated by Nigerian government,agricultural productivity has continued to decline leading to a fall in agricultural growth, an increase in the poverty status of farmers, low performance of agricultural share on GDP and a rise in the poverty status of the small holder farmers (Central Bank of Nigeria – CBN, 2006; Olarinde et al., 2010).Nigeria’s small-scale farmers largely depend on traditional methods of farming which include among others land and forest clearing,burning of cleared bushes,practicing of shifting cultivation, making of mounds in slopy areas,burning of crop residues,intensive tillage, open grazing etc.The techniques of the traditional farming practices and tools used especially in land preparation affect the bio-physical quality of the soil.These practices cause loss of soil fertility which is the major source of decline in agricultural production and loss of income.The decline in the soil fertility leads to low yield,low income,food shortage and increase in poverty of the rural farmers.Therefore, the decline of good quality soil for smallholder farmers is a major problem (FAO,1996).

 

Poverty status of the farmers equally discourages most rural farmers from adopting and implementing good soil management practices.The non-adoption and implementation of these good soil management practices lead to low agricultural production.Most rural farmers cannot buy improved seeds which are high yielding, fertilizers, irrigation equipments and other inputs needed to improve crop productivity and soil nutrients. Apart from poverty,most of these farmers engage in activities that expose their farms to both wind and water erosion as a result of lack of extension contact that could educate them on good soil management practices.Also their low levels of education contribute significantly to the decline in soil fertility and low income through lack of information and poor application of modern innovations.The farmers are also aging and are no longer fit for some of these good soil management practices which enhance soil nutrient improvement, increase in food production, food security and income level of the farmers.

 

Soil fertility decline occurs when the quantities of nutrients removed from the soil in harvested products exceed the quantities of nutrients being applied. In this situation, the nutrient requirements of the crop are met from soil reserves until these reserves cannot meet crop demands. These results in a reduction of plant growth and yield, low production, low income and increase in poverty level Onyenweaku et al., (1991). The increase in the rate of unsustainable soil management practices as practiced by these farmers contributes to low production. Empirical evidence show that these farmersengage in poor soil management practices which reduce soil fertility (Amujoyegbe and Elemo, 2012). The outcome of this is rapid environmental degradation whichamounts to food scarcity, increased food prices, and import bills (Lipton, 2001).

Land degradation has contributed immensely to the declining state of agricultural production and farmer’s income (Onyenweaku, 1991; NEMA, 2001; ). Apart from poverty incidence, the livelihood of the southeast people Enugu state inclusive that depend on agriculture for survival is at stake.The rural farmers often maintainspecific soil management practices that are not sustainable for soil improvement and this could be one of the reasons for poor performance in food crop production,low income and increase in their poverty status. Hence these has necessitated this study to investigate the effects of soil management practices on the poverty status of smallholder farmers in Enugu State.Based on the above stated problems, this research has the following questions;

1. what are the socio-economic characteristics of smallholder farmers in Enugu state?;

2. what are the various types of soil management practicespracticed by farmers in the study area?;

3. what is the level of use of these SMP(s)?;

4. what are the determinants of the soil management practices in the study area;

5) what is the poverty status of smallholder farmers in Enugu state?;

6)    What are the determinants of soil management practice use level and other factors on the poverty status of the smallholder farmers in Enugu State?; and

7) What are the constraints to the use of SMP?


1.3   OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The broad objective of this study was to determine the effects of  soil management practices on the poverty status of smallholder farmers in Enugu State, Nigeria. The specific objectives were to:

(i)      identifythe socio-economic characteristics of smallholder farmers as they affect the different levels of soil management practices in the study area;

(ii)    identify the types of soil management practices among small holder farmers in the study area;

(iii)   estimate the use level of soil management practices by smallholder farmers in Enugu State;

(iv)   estimate the determinants of the use level of soil management practices among smallholder farmers in Enugu state;

(v)     analyse the  poverty status of the respondents based on the soil management practices;

(vi)    determine the effect of soil management practice use level and other factors on the poverty status of the smallholder farmers in Enugu State; and

(vii) identify the constraints to the use of soil management practices by smallholder  farmers in Enugu State.

  

1.4   HYPOTHESES OF THE STUDY

The following hypotheses were tested for this study.

 

H1: Use level of soil management practices are positively related to the educational level, farm income, farm size, years of farming experiences, extension contact, land ownership and negatively related to age,and gender.

H2: Age, remittances, and per capita expenditure,positively affect the poverty status of smallholder farmers while education, annual income, number of extension contact, household size, access to micro credit and soil nmanagement practices negatively affect the poverty status of smallholder farmers.

H3: There is no significant difference between the poverty status of high and low users of soil management practices.

1.5   SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

Improved soil management practices in balance with accepted ecological and economic principles ensure agricultural productivity and sustainability at large (Junge et al., 2009).Good Soil management practices contribute significantly to food production.This helps in crop improvement, increase in net income of farmers and reduction in the farmer’s poverty level. The findings of this work; soil management practices by smallholder farmers especially as it concerns the level of use will assist farmers in knowing the right approach in dealing with any of the management practices and hence improve both their food production and the income level bwithin and outside the study area.

This research will provide information to farmers on different ways of managing their soil in order to maintain the fertility of the soil and improve their poverty level.

High use-level of good soil management practices ensure increased food production and reduction in the poverty level of smallholder farmers (Odhiambo et al.,2004; Ojiako, 2008; Ekpo and Umoh, 2010). It has been observed that most farmers in the study area lack the knowledge of soil management techniques not to talk of practicing them and this could be attributed to their low income level. When adequate soil management techniques are practiced by farmers through the informations from this research work, the people of the state and the country at large will be self sufficient in food production and smallholder farmers will live above the poverty line. Information from this research finding also will be made available to relevant stakeholders and hence Government will make policies that will encourage the use of sustainable soil management techniques by crop farmers especially the small holder farmers in the rural areas.The findings of this study will serve as a reference point for further studies in this area as it will be made available as a relevant material.

 

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