ABSTRACT
This study evaluates the
effects of soil management practices (SMPs) on the poverty status of
smallholder farmers in Enugu State, Nigeria. It investigates how socio-economic
characteristics, types, and use levels of SMPs influence farmers' livelihoods
and identifies constraints limiting their effective implementation. Employing a
multi-stage random sampling technique, data were collected from 180 smallholder
farmers using structured questionnaires and oral interviews. Analytical methods
included descriptive statistics, Tobit regression, logit models,
Foster-Greer-Thorbecke (FGT) poverty measures, and z-tests. The findings reveal
that smallholder farmers in Enugu State are predominantly male (65.6%), with a
mean age of 45 years, suggesting active engagement in farming. Most respondents
(94.4%) are literate, but technical innovations from extension services are
largely inaccessible, with 56% of farmers reporting no contact. The study
identified common SMPs, such as organic manure, multiple cropping (100%), shifting
cultivation (75%), and bush fallowing (68.9%). However, adoption levels remain
low, with 59.4% of farmers categorized as low users of SMPs, likely due to
financial constraints and limited awareness. The analysis of poverty among
farmers revealed a poverty line of ₦373.55 ($0.98) per person per day, with
65.6% of households classified as poor. Determinants of poverty included age,
education, household size, access to credit, net farm income, and SMP adoption
levels. Notably, higher use of SMPs was associated with improved poverty
outcomes, demonstrating their potential to enhance productivity and income.
Constraints such as inadequate funding, insufficient extension services, and
land tenure issues further hindered SMP adoption. The study concludes that farmers
predominantly utilize traditional and low-cost SMPs, which limit productivity
and perpetuate poverty. It calls for strategic policy interventions to address
these challenges and enhance SMP adoption. Recommendations include promoting
education and extension services, providing subsidized farm inputs, and
implementing land reform policies to improve access to productive land. This
research highlights the critical role of sustainable soil management in poverty
alleviation and provides a foundation for policymakers to design targeted
interventions that foster agricultural productivity, enhance livelihoods, and
reduce poverty among smallholder farmers in Enugu State.
TABLE
OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1
Background of the Study
1.2 Problem
Statement
1.3 Objectives
of the Study
1.4 Hypotheses
of the Study
1.5 Significance
of the Study
CHAPTER
2
REVIEW
OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1 Conceptual
Literature
2.1.1 Soil management practices
2.1.2 Agronomic soil management practices
2.1.3 Tillagesoil management practices.
2.1.4 Mechanical
soil management practices
2.2 Challenges Of Farmers
In Soil Management Practices
2.2.1 Biological factors
2.2.2 Chemical factors
2.2.3 Physical factors
2.3 Concept Of Poverty
2.3.1 Measuring poverty
2.3.2 Operational
definition ofpoverty for the study
2.4
Small Holder Farmers
2.5 Theoretical Literature
2.5.1 Theory
of poverty
2.5.2 Theory
of soil management practices
2.6 Empirical
Literature Review
2.7
Analytical Framework
2.7.1 Descriptive
statistics
2.7.2 Logit
regression model
2.7.3 FGT
model
2.7.4 Tobit
regression model
CHAPTER
3
METHODOLOGY
3.1 Study
Area
3.2 Sampling
Technique
3.3 Method
of Data Collection
3.4 Method
of Data Analysis
3.5
Model Specification
CHAPTER
4
RESULTS
AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Socio-Economic
Characteristics of Smallholder Farmers in the Study Area
4.1.1 Age
4.1.2 Gender
4.1.3 Marital Status
4.1.4 Household Size
4.1.5 Educational Attainment
4.1.6 Extension Contacts
4.1.7 Farm Size
4.2 Types
of Soil Management Practices among Smallholder Farmers in Enugu State
4.3 Use
Levels of Soil Management Practices By Smallholder Farmers In Enugu State.
4.3.1 Use
Level of Soil Management Practices
4.3.2 Classification
of Use Levels Of Soil Managemnt Practices (Smp)
4.4 Determinants
of Use Level of Soil Management Practices among Smallholder Farmers in Enugu
State
4.5 Estimated
Poverty Line and Status of Smallholder Farmersin Enugu State
4.6 Determinants
of Smp Use Levels and Other Factors on Poverty Status of Smallholder Farmers in
Enugu State
4.7 Comparing
the Poverty Status of High And Low Users of Soil
Management Practices
4.8 Constraints
to the Use of Soil Management Practices by
Smallholder Farmers in Enugu State
CHAPTER
5
SUMMARY,
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Summary
Of Findings
5.2 Conclusion
5.3 Recommendations
References
LIST OF
TABLES
Table 4.1: Distribution
of smallholder farmers according to age
Table 4.2: Distribution of smallholder farmers based on gender
Table 4.3: Distribution of respondents according to marital status
Table 4.4: Distribution of respondents according to household size
Table4.5: Distribution of Respondents According to educational attainment
Table 4.6: Distribution of Respondents based on extension Visit/contacts
Table 4.7: Distribution of farmers based on farm size
Table 4.8: Distribution of farmers according to types of Soil Management Practices
Table 4.9: Distribution of the smallholder farmers based on use levels of soil
management practices in the study area
Table 4.10: Classification of the smallholder farmers based on the use levels of
the SMP
Table 4.11: Estimated determinants of use level of soil management practices
among smallholder farmers
Table 4.12: Mean per capita per monthly expenditure of
smallholder farmers in Enugu State
Table 4.13 Estimated poverty line
Table 4.14: Poverty status of the
household farmers
Table 4.15: Estimated determinants of
poverty among smallholder farmers in the study area
Table 4.16: Z-test Analysis of the Mean poverty status of high users and low users
of soil management practices
Table 4.17: Constraints in the use of soil management practices
CHAPTER
1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND
OF THE STUDY
Agriculture is
the systematic raising of useful plants and livestock under the management of
man.The practice of agriculture is based on
systematized body of knowledge (science) and requires skill (art) (Rimando,
2004). Agriculture involves the cultivation of the soil for growing of crops
and raising of animals for human needs. Crops
areplantswhich are useful to man while livestock stands for both domesticated
animals and poultry. The cultivation of crops and raising of animals are practiced
for the purpose of producing food and other human needs such as clothing, shelter,
medicines, ornaments, and also practiced as a business for economic gain.
Agriculture plays a very important role in developing economies through the provision
of food and income (World Bank, 2015).It is the primary means of income
generation in rural economies.In developing countries, agriculture remains a
soil based industry. Soil is a major factor in the agricultural economy andas
long as agriculture remains a soil-based industry, major increases in
agricultural productivity are likely to be attained through soil management practices
(SMP) which ensure that plants have adequate and balanced supply of nutrients. The
challenge for agriculture to meet the developing countries̕increasing demand
for food in a sustainable way is still far-fetched. The developing countries̕population
growth and the associated land fragmentation are forcing farmers to cultivate
on small plots that are hardly suitable for soil improvement practices (World
Bank, 2006; Food and Agricultural Organization-FAO, 2010 and International Fund
for Agricultural Development- IFAD, 2011).
Soil
is the loose surface material consisting of inorganic particles and organic
matter that covers most of the land surface. Soil provides structural support
and source of water and nutrients for plants used in agriculture. It sustains
most living organisms, being the ultimate source of their mineral nutrients.Healthy
soil is essential for the production of crops used to feed humans and
livestock. In addition to providing a stable base to support plant roots, soil
stores water and nutrients required for plant growth (FAO, 2009).Soils in most
developing African countries have inherent low fertility as a result of poor
and inadequate soil management practices.
Managing
our soils sustainably is very crucial for agricultural production and
ecosystems. Good management of soils ensures that mineral elements do not
become deficient or toxic to plants, and that appropriate mineral elements
enter the food chain.Soil management practices are an integral part of land management which focuses on
differences in soil types and soil characteristics.Fred
(2011) stated that soil management practice (SMP) is a device that protects the
soil from degradation, increases in nutrients with locally sourced products
from farm, such as recycled crop residue and animal soil conservation, soil amendment,
and optimal soilhealth. Soil management practice however contributes immensely to
agricultural production and productivity as it provides protective waste
products used for crop growth.Soilmanagement concerns all operations, practices, and
treatments used to protect soiland enhance its
performance (such as soil fertility or soil mechanics). It includes soil cover, enhance soil physical and
chemical properties, improve soil fertility and plant nutrient, facilitate pest
management, reduce soil water evaporation and equally reduce weed competition.
According to World Bank (2006) many farmers choose to use some soil management
practices such as conservation tillage, crop rotation, and organic fertilization
in order toprotect valuable soil resources. Sustainable soil management
practices allow farmers to maintain healthy, productive soil for crops without
degrading the environment and as a result, these reduce poverty amongst the
smallholder farmers in Nigeria (FAO, 2006).
In
West-Africa, soil management practices such as alley cropping where farmers
grow crops between rows of trees has been found to increase yields, crop
productivity and income of the rural farmers. This practice is sustainable as
it enables the same plot to be cultivated over and over, thus eliminating the need for the continual burning of
the rain-forest to get fertile plots (Magdoff
and Van, 2001).According
to the estimates of Batjes (2007) only 12% of African soils are moderately
fertile or well drained, compared to 33% in Asia, while about 88% is infertile
covering an area of about494 million hectares in the continent.Unfortunately, industrial agricultural
practices continue to damage and deplete these valuable natural resources. While
intensive ploughing and monocrop agriculture systems have caused nutrient
depletion and wide-scale soil erosion, over-application of artificial
fertilizers and pesticides contaminate soils
thereby increasing the poverty level of the rural farmers (FAO, 2009).Apart
from erosion,fertility loss is being
hastened by reduction in fallow periods and the shift from conventional bush
fallowing system to permanent cultivation caused by population pressure and
agricultural activities (Ameyan and Ogidiolu, 1989). For example, about 70% of
the increasing population in Nigeria derives their livelihood from agriculture
therebyexposing the soil to various forms of degradation. FAO (2005) reported
that Nigeria lost 1,214km of forest cover between 1990 – 1995; resulting in
severe exposure of the soil to agents of soil degradation and consequently loss
of soil productivityleading to low income of the farmers.The activities of most
of the small holder farmers are characterized by large rural-based traditional
method (FAO, 2005) which may also not be best suitable for a particular soil
thereby causing depletion.Soil erosion by wind and
water are the main processes by which topsoil is lost. However, low rate of
soil erosion control can severely damage agricultural land; not only does
erosion reduce the water-holding capacity of a given soil, it also strips away nutrients and organic
matter and when these happen, it may drastically affect the income of the
smallholder farmers and hence result to the farmers being poor. In fact, soil
removed by erosion contains about 3 times more nutrients and 1.5 to 5 times
more organic matter than the soil that remains behind (Agbola et al., 2003). In many areas of the
world, the loss of topsoil, either through mineral imbalance or erosion, is the
single largest threat to agricultural productivity and farmer’s income. Gang et al. (2004) reported that soils with
high soil surface roughness (SSR), such as those produced with conservation
tillage, are less susceptible to erosion, and that there is an inverse
relationship between SSR and soil porosity.
However, Agbanlahora et al.(2003)
posited that farmers in the south-south Nigeria engage in unsustainable soil
management practices in the area which results to low agricultural productivity
and poor income of farmers. Soil management practices in the area include;
improper removal of stubble or fallow cover leading to erosion, insufficient
fallow time leading to decline in soil fertility, over production of single
crop types leading to depletion, over removal of tree cover leading to water
table elevation and/or salinity, over irrigation of farm lands leading to
turbidity and salinity, excess tillage of fragile soils on erosion and over
grazing of farm lands leading to desertification which encroaches farm lands of
small holder farmers.Onwerenmadu et al.
(2008) also reported that soil management
practices in most of the south eastern states is concomitant to soil
erosion, soil nutrient depletion, decline in crop and low income of farmers.
Good soil management practices are one of the ways to restore the declination
of soil fertility, increase production, output, and farmer’s income and reduce
their poverty. Good soil management practices can be a significant instrument
for poverty reduction as it could increase farmer’s productivity, food
security, income and standard of living.Traditionally, agricultural soils were
fertilized using livestock manure, which is rich in nutrients and organic
matter. Farmers also practice crop rotation, regularly alternating the types of
crop grown in various fields and periodically allowing fields to remain
unplanted. This process enables organic matter to accumulate and decompose,
thus restoring nutrients to the soil (Aluko et
al., 2000).
Ejike and Osuji (2013) further posited that over 50% of the farmers
in Imo state have adopted sustainable soil management techniques (SSMT) which
cut across applying manure regularly, growing cover crops in rotation with
maize and cowpea, and multiple cropping systems, crop rotation and minimum
tillage system, and planting of shelter belt around the farm. According to
lwena (2008) these soil management practices seek to enhance soil nutrients,
sustain crop growth and food without any adverse effect. Sustainable soil
management techniques (SSMT) are practiced by farmers who are exposed to
extension contacts and seek to improve their output levels (Classsen et al., 2004).Manuring and mulching,
land fallows and cover cropping, zero tillage farming, strip cropping, adequate
rotation, home gardens or compound farming, alley cropping, agroforestry system
and addition of chemical fertilizers are mainly the remedial measures for
tackling soil degradation by most farmers in the southeast.
Short-run
goals of SMP may include conservation and efficient use of water resources,
nutrient recycling, prevention of soil erosion and sustainable environment
while the long-run goal is poised towards reduction in poverty status of
farmers. SMP do not only sustain food production but maintains an upward shift
in food production per unit area and farm income thereby forcing down poverty
and food price fluctuations (Sedik, 2000).
Soil
management is important, both directly and indirectly to crop productivity,
environmental sustainability, and poverty reduction (FAO,2005). Because of the
projected increase in world population and the consequent necessity for the
intensification of food production, the management of soils becomes very
important in agriculture, even in the years to come.According to Turner et al. (1994), there is need to avoid
further degradation of soilsthrough erosion control, and to produce sufficient
safe and nutritious food for healthy diets. Hence research is required in good
soil management practices to avoid further degradation of soils, low crop
yield, decline in food production and productivity through soil erosion and
contaminationand to produce a sufficient safe and less susceptible soil to
erosion and decrease the poverty status of smallholder farmers.Therefore,soil
management practices at farm household level is the most critical factor for
sustainable food crop production in south-east Nigeria and Enugu state in particular.It
is based on this background that this study was carried out to investigate the effect
of soil management practices on poverty status of small holder farmers in Enugu
State,Nigeria.
1.2 PROBLEM
STATEMENT
The
agricultural sector in Nigeria has remained the largest and relatively the most
important sector of the economy, not withstanding the enviable position of the
oil sector in Nigeria̕s economy over the past three decades. It is estimated to
be the largest contributor to the non-oil foreign exchange. Like in most
developing countries, agriculture remains the backbone of Nigeria̕s economy. It
is the largest source of employment, about two thirds of the population depends
on farming for their livelihood. Inspite of the high proportion of the
country’s population that is into agriculture, Nigeria has been experiencing
rapid decrease in food productionleading to low income generation and increase
in poverty among farmers in the past decades. Surveyreports show that though
there has been a decrease in food production in Nigeria,local demand has
consistently remained above production(Nigeria Bureau of Statistics-NBS, 2012).In
a similar way, in spite of the soil management practices and land use policies
formulated by Nigerian government,agricultural productivity has continued to
decline leading to a fall in agricultural growth, an increase in the poverty
status of farmers, low performance of agricultural share on GDP and a rise in
the poverty status of the small holder farmers (Central Bank of Nigeria – CBN,
2006; Olarinde et al., 2010).Nigeria’s
small-scale farmers largely depend on traditional methods of farming which
include among others land and forest clearing,burning of cleared
bushes,practicing of shifting cultivation, making of mounds in slopy
areas,burning of crop residues,intensive tillage, open grazing etc.The
techniques of the traditional farming practices and tools used especially in
land preparation affect the bio-physical quality of the soil.These practices
cause loss of soil fertility which is the major source of decline in agricultural
production and loss of income.The decline in the soil fertility leads to low
yield,low income,food shortage and increase in poverty of the rural farmers.Therefore,
the decline of good quality soil for smallholder farmers is a major problem (FAO,1996).
Poverty status of the farmers equally discourages most rural
farmers from adopting and implementing good soil management practices.The
non-adoption and implementation of these good soil management practices lead to
low agricultural production.Most rural farmers cannot buy improved seeds which
are high yielding, fertilizers, irrigation equipments and other inputs needed
to improve crop productivity and soil nutrients. Apart from poverty,most of these
farmers engage in activities that expose their farms to both wind and water
erosion as a result of lack of extension contact that could educate them on
good soil management practices.Also their low levels of education contribute
significantly to the decline in soil fertility and low income through lack of
information and poor application of modern innovations.The farmers are also
aging and are no longer fit for some of these good soil management practices
which enhance soil nutrient improvement, increase in food production, food
security and income level of the farmers.
Soil fertility decline occurs when the quantities of
nutrients removed from the soil in harvested products exceed the quantities of
nutrients being applied. In this situation, the nutrient requirements of the
crop are met from soil reserves until these reserves cannot meet crop demands.
These results in a reduction of plant growth and yield, low production, low
income and increase in poverty level Onyenweaku et al., (1991). The increase in the rate of unsustainable soil
management practices as practiced by these farmers contributes to low production.
Empirical evidence show that these farmersengage in poor soil management
practices which reduce soil fertility (Amujoyegbe and Elemo, 2012). The outcome
of this is rapid environmental degradation whichamounts to food scarcity,
increased food prices, and import bills (Lipton, 2001).
Land degradation has contributed immensely to the
declining state of agricultural production and farmer’s income (Onyenweaku,
1991; NEMA, 2001; ). Apart from poverty incidence, the livelihood of the
southeast people Enugu state inclusive that depend on agriculture for survival
is at stake.The rural farmers often maintainspecific soil management practices
that are not sustainable for soil improvement and this could be one of the
reasons for poor performance in food crop production,low income and increase in
their poverty status. Hence these has necessitated this study to investigate
the effects of soil management practices on the poverty status of smallholder
farmers in Enugu State.Based on the above stated problems, this research has the
following questions;
1. what are the socio-economic characteristics
of smallholder farmers in Enugu state?;
2.
what are the various types of soil management practicespracticed by farmers in
the study area?;
3.
what is the level of use of these SMP(s)?;
4.
what are the determinants of the soil management practices in the study area;
5)
what is the poverty status of smallholder farmers in Enugu state?;
6) What
are the determinants of soil management practice use level and other factors on
the poverty status of the smallholder farmers in Enugu State?; and
7) What are the constraints to the use of SMP?
1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The
broad objective of this study was to determine the effects of soil management practices on the poverty
status of smallholder farmers in Enugu State, Nigeria. The specific objectives
were to:
(i) identifythe
socio-economic characteristics of smallholder farmers as they affect the
different levels of soil management practices in the study area;
(ii) identify
the types of soil management practices among small holder farmers in the study
area;
(iii) estimate
the use level of soil management practices by smallholder farmers in Enugu
State;
(iv) estimate
the determinants of the use level of soil management practices among smallholder
farmers in Enugu state;
(v) analyse
the poverty status of the respondents
based on the soil management practices;
(vi) determine the effect of soil management
practice use level and other factors on the poverty status of the smallholder
farmers in Enugu State; and
(vii) identify
the constraints to the use of soil management practices by smallholder farmers in Enugu State.
1.4 HYPOTHESES OF THE STUDY
The
following hypotheses were tested for this study.
H1: Use
level of soil management practices are positively related to the educational
level, farm income, farm size, years of farming experiences, extension contact,
land ownership and negatively related to age,and gender.
H2:
Age, remittances, and per capita
expenditure,positively affect the poverty status of smallholder farmers while education,
annual income, number of extension contact, household size, access to micro
credit and soil nmanagement practices negatively affect the poverty status of
smallholder farmers.
H3:
There is no significant difference between
the poverty status of high and low users of soil management practices.
1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
Improved soil management practices in balance with
accepted ecological and economic principles ensure agricultural productivity
and sustainability at large (Junge et
al., 2009).Good Soil management
practices contribute significantly to food production.This helps in crop
improvement, increase in net income of farmers and reduction in the farmer’s
poverty level. The findings of this work; soil management practices by
smallholder farmers especially as it concerns the level of use will assist
farmers in knowing the right approach in dealing with any of the management
practices and hence improve both their food production and the income level
bwithin and outside the study area.
This research will provide information to farmers on
different ways of managing their soil in order to maintain the fertility of the
soil and improve their poverty level.
High
use-level of good soil management practices ensure increased food production
and reduction in the poverty level of smallholder farmers (Odhiambo et al.,2004; Ojiako, 2008; Ekpo and Umoh,
2010). It has been observed that most farmers in the study area lack the
knowledge of soil management techniques not to talk of practicing them and this
could be attributed to their low income level. When adequate soil management
techniques are practiced by farmers through the informations from this research
work, the people of the state and the country at large will be self sufficient
in food production and smallholder farmers will live above the poverty line. Information
from this research finding also will be made available to relevant stakeholders
and hence Government will make policies that will encourage the use of
sustainable soil management techniques by crop farmers especially the small
holder farmers in the rural areas.The findings of this study will serve as a
reference point for further studies in this area as it will be made available
as a relevant material.
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