ABSTRACT
The study was conducted to analyse the chemical composition of selected browse plants determines the nutrient intake and digestibility of same with West African dwarf (WAD) goat. Four selected browse plants foliage which included; Ficus polita, Elaeis guineensis Manniophyton fulvum, Alchornea cordifolia designated diets A, B, C and D respectively were used to conduct the study. All browse plants foliage were served separately in metabolism cages in a 4×4 Latin square design experiment to four WAD buck of average weight 10.39 ± 0.14 Kg, aged between 7 and 8 months. Data were collected on proximate composition, anti-nutrients contents of the browses, nutrient intake and digestibility and simple regression and correlation co-efficient of some digestion parameters. The dry matter content of the browses ranged from 85.35 to 88.58% with Ficus polita recording the highest (P<0.01) value. The crude protein content ranged from 10.25 to 14.00% with the highest (P<0.01) value obtained in Manniophyton fulvum. Crude fibre contents ranged from 18.05 to 37.50% with Ficus polita having the highest (P<0.01) value. Tannins contents ranged from 0.28 to 4.10 Mg/g DM with the lowest (P<0.01) value obtained in Manniophyton fulvum, while the highest value was obtained from Alchornea cordifolia. Phytate, oxalate and cyanide contents ranged from 0.06 to 23.07, 0.29 to 5.04 and 1,28 to 2.14 Mg/g DM respectively. DMI (g/d) ranged from 493.63 to 717.41 with the highest (P<0.01) value obtained from animals that consumed Ficus polita. Nitrogen intake values ranged from 9.15 to 15.77 g/d with Elaeis guineensis group recording the highest (P<0.01) N-intake. The nitrogen balance values ranged from 7.59 to 12.34 g/d with the highest value obtained in Ficus polita. Apparent N-digestibility values ranged from 87.31 to 90.84% with Ficus polita recording the highest (P
0.01) values. Higher (P<0.01) dry matter and crude fibre digestibility values of 78.25 and 86.46% respectively were obtained in Ficus polita. The highest (P<0.01) crude protein digestibility value (86.52%) was obtained in Manniophyton fulvum. The MFN (g/100g DM), EUN (g/day/WKg 0.75) and DCP (g/day/WKg 0.75) ranged from 0.1120 to 0.1529, 1.120 to 1.614 and 0.12 to 0.89 respectively. Biological values ranged from 65 to 78%. The correlation coefficient (r) did not indicate significant (P<0.01) difference. All the browse plant foliage promoted positive N-balance in the goats and could be served as good forage feed resources for goats in the tropical rainforest zone of Nigeria, especially in the dry season. However, Ficus polita having the highest dry matter content (88.58%) with adequate crude protein content (10.50%) and crude fibre content (37.50%) with highest N-balance value could be recommended as the best browse plant foliage for goats in the rainforest zone of Nigeria.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Page i
Declaration ii
Certification iii
Dedication iv
Acknowledgements v
Tables of
Contents vi
List of
Tables x
List of
Figures xi
Abstract xii
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Background
to the Study 1
1.2 Statement
of Problem 7
1.3 Objective of the Study 7
1.4 Justification 9
CHAPTER 2:
LITERATURE REVIEW 10
2.1 Origin
of Goats 10
2.2 Breeds
of Goat in Nigeria 11
2.3 Population
of Goats in Nigeria 11
2.2.2 Classification
of goats 15
2.2.3 Feeding
goat for meat production 15
2.2.4 Nutritional
requirement for goat 16
2.3 Trace Elements 23
2.4 Housing of Goats 25
2.5 Browse Plants 26
2.6 Composition of Ingredients in Feeds 28
2.7 Oil Palm Foliage and Fatty
Acid Changes 31
2.8 Agriculture
by-Products From Oil Palm Industry 32
2.9 Use of Oil Palm Fronds as Ruminant Feed 33
2.10 Effect of Fatty Acids in Ruminant Products
on Human Health 33
2.11 Manniophyton fulvum 34
2.12 Alchornea cordifolia 36
2.13 Ficus polita 37
2.14 Oil
Palm Plant (Elaeis guineensis) 38
2.15 Effects
of Climate Change on Oil Palm Cultivation 38
2.16 Breeding
and Biotechnology to Improve Oil Palm as a Crop 39
2.17 Fibre
in Forages 40
2.18. Meaning
of Anti- Nutrients 41
2.19 Methods
of Reducing the Deleterious Effect of Anti-Nutritional Factors 44
2.20 Preferences
of Forage by Ruminant Animals 44
2.21
Nitrogen Balance
45
2.22
Endogenous Urinary Nitrogen (EUN) 45
2.23 Rumen
Microbial Population and Adaptation 46
CHAPTER 3: MATERIALS AND METHODS 48
3.1 Location
of the Study 48
3.2 Experimental
Diets 48
3.3 Digestibility
Study 48
3.5 Experimental Diets 50
3.6 Determination
of Protein 51
3.7 Determination
of Crude Fat Content 52
3.8 Determination
of Crude Fibre 53
3.9 Determination
of Carbohydrate 53
3.10 Determination
of Total Ash 54
3.11 Digestibility
Coefficient (%) Determination 54
3.11 Biological
Value (BV) Calculation 55
3.12 Measurements 55
3.14 Determination of Anti-Nutrients 56
3.14.1
Determination of Tannin (Tannic acid) 56
3.14.2 Determination
of Phytate (Phytic acid) 56
3.14.3 Determination of Hydrogen Cyanide 56
3.14.4 Determination of Oxalate 57
3.15 Experimental
Design 57
3.16 Statistical
Analysis 58
3.17 Metabolizable
Energy 58
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 59
4.1 Results 59
CHAPTER 5:
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 76
5.1 Conclusion and Recommendation 76
References
Appendix
LIST
OF TABLES
1: Nigerian
livestock population estimate 12
2: Nutritional requirements of goats 24
3: Quantitative
analysis of the aqueous and ethanol extract of
Manniophyton
fulvum leaves/ medicinal properties 30
4.1: Proximate
composition of experimental diets (%) Ficus polita, Elaeis guineensis,
Alchornea cordifolia and Manniophyton fulvum 54
4.2: Anti-nutrients
of experimental diets (%) 61
4.3: Nutrient intake and digestibility of WAD
goats fed different kinds of
browses 64
4.4: Apparent digestibility coefficient (%) of
WAD goats fed the experimental
diets. 67
4.5: Regression and correlation analysis between
Faecal Nitrogen (g/d) (y) and Nitrogen intake (g/d) (x) 69
4.6: Regression and correlation analysis between
Urinary Nitrogen
(g/daywkg0.75)
(y) and absorbed nitrogen (g/dwkg0.75) (x) 71
4.7: Regression and correlation analysis between
Nitrogen balance (g/dwkg0.75)
(y) and absorbed Nitrogen (g/dwkg0.75) (x) 73
LIST OF FIGURES
1: Metabolism cage 102
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1
BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
Browse plants make up an
abundant biomass in farmlands, bush fallows and forests in the humid tropical
environment of southeastern Nigeria. They are commonly utilised in the wild by
small-holder livestock farmers for feeding small ruminants (Okoli, et al., 2003). Of over 5000 trees and
shrubs listed as suitable for feeding livestock in Africa (Okoli et al., 2003), it has been
suggested that only 80 are of real fodder value while 5 may be recorded as good
(Brewbaker, 2000). This probably underscores the lack of information on the
values of many of these plants and the need to scientifically evaluate their
nutritive importance. Oji and Isilebo (2000) and Okoli et al., (2001) among others, have characterised the nutrient
composition of some indigenous browse plants of southern Nigeria. These studies
showed that crude protein and crude fibre contents of such plants range from
15.3% to 33.3% and 2.7% to 15.6%, respectively. However, tropical browse plants
have been shown to contain varying quantities of condensed tannin and other
anti-nutritional substances in their biomass that affect their optional
utilization by animals. (Osagie
and Eka, 1998).
The type of feed offered to a
ruminant can have a major effect on rumen fermentation. The types of diet are
potential modifiers of ruminal fermentation and may offer a strategy to reduce
protozoal and methanogen populations, thus improving the efficiency of feed
utilization in the ruminants (Anantasook et al., 2013). When the ratio of concentrate in the diet was increased
methane production decreased by shift of hydrogen from the methane pathway to
be used to produce propionate, manipulation of ruminal fermentation and methane
production by dietary saponins and tannins from soapberry fruit. (Poungchompu et al., 2009).
Plants containing secondary
metabolites, condensed tannins and saponins have shown potential to manipulate
rumen fermentation by enhancing the efficiency of utilization of feed energy
while inhibiting rumen methane production (Kreuzer et al., 2009). Moreover, plant secondary compounds with action
against specific microbial groups can be used to inhibit some undesirable
microbes in the rumen. The methanogens classified as Archaea have a distinctly different cell
wall structure from true rumen bacteria. Thus, there exists a possibility that
some of the plant secondary compounds might act as a selective inhibitor of
methanogens and protozoa. Therefore, recent researches have been focused on
exploiting plant secondary compounds as natural feed additives to improve rumen
fermentation such as enhancing protein metabolism, decreasing methane
production (Wallace et al., 2007),
affecting microbial activity (Patra et
al., 2006), increasing reproductive efficiency (Ramirez-Restrepo et al., 2005), reducing nutritional
stress such as bloat and improving animal health and productivity (Decandia et al., 2000).
Browse plants, beside grasses,
constitute one of the cheapest sources of feed for ruminants (Ahamefule et al., 2006). Sole legumes feeding in
their study resulted in higher gas production which according to Ngamsaeng et al., (2006) would lead to the
production of more of acetate and butyrate which are not energy giving volatile
fatty acids.
Although, Ahamefule et al., (2006), observed that sole
feeding with browses, should not be encouraged, Oluremi et al. (2007) recommended that older small ruminants can be served
browse plants because it meets up their nutrient requirements for body
maintenance. Their year-round evergreen
presentation and their abundance provide for year-round provision of fodder
(Ibeawuchi et al., 2002). Nigeria
possesses vast resources in livestock comprising cattle, goats, sheep, horses,
donkeys and camels. In the northern region alone, about 70% of the country’s
population of sheep and goats are found due to their high adaptation to the
ecological constraints of this region (Lawal et al., 2012). However, like in any other tropical country,
livestock production has been faced with the problem of meeting up with the
competition between human needs and those of farm animals for the scarce
conventional foodstuffs like the cereals, pulses and root crops. The high cost
and sometimes unavailability of the conventional feeds all the year round
coupled with the shortages in the foreign exchange and poor-quality feeds have
rendered livestock production an expensive venture in Nigeria (Parr et al., 2015). In addition, this country
has been classified as one of the vulnerable countries in terms of food security
considering some salient factors that militate against her adequate food
production especially in recent years (Parr et
al., 2015). Thus, studies on alternative feedstuffs to the conventional
carbohydrate and protein sources are very important.
In recent years, studies have been
conducted on the use of other unconventional feed stuffs especially forages in
ruminant nutrition in order to replace the relatively more expensive plant
protein supplements like groundnuts, Cajanus
cajan and soya beans (Adegbola, 1980). The use of these unconventional
sources to complement the conventional ones is however, affected by several
factors ranging from low protein content, high fibre content, amino acid
imbalance to the presence of anti-nutritional factors which generally have
significant negative effects on livestock production as they interfere with the
bioavailability of the mineral elements required for healthy growth of
livestock (Davis 2004; Oluremi et al.,
2007). The increasing cost of proteins of plant origin especially groundnut
meal and soya bean meal, has led to extensive research in the use as well as
the characterization of these plant supplements in order to augment livestock
feed production (Oluremi et al.,
2007).
The fig tree, with binomial
nomenclature as Ficus polita, is
called Durumi in Hausa, Jammeiz alazrak in Shuwa Arabic and Gbanchi bokun in
Nupe, Ogbu in Igbo (Burkill and Provenza, 2004). Over 45 different species are
found in Nigeria and belong to the family moraceae (Burkill and Provenza, 2004)
The leaf extract has been reported to have diverse uses in the treatment of
heamostative opthalmia, coughs, heamorrhoid (Odunbaku, et al., 2008). Proximate and nutrient analysis of medicinal plants,
edible fruits and vegetables play a crucial role in assessing their nutritional
significance and can help to understand the worth of these plant species
(Pandey et al., 2006). It grows to
about 18 m high and is much branched with dense rounded crown upon which
abscission can occur during wind or storms (Raghavendra, 1991). The stem of
this plant is erect with a single trunk and smooth bark which secretes a milky
juice that contains some waste products (Muller Harvey, 2006). Its leaves are
slender and tend to hang downwards which, close to the time of annual bud
break, shed off their old ones which are soon replaced by the expanding buds
hence, the plant is essentially evergreen (Raghavendra, 1991). This perennial
plant is found grown mostly in towns and villages primarily to provide shade
around the houses (Gibbon and Pain, 1985). It can grow on poor rocky soils and
even poorer ones than these with its extensive rooting system (both tap root
and aerial) being capable of exploiting these soils very efficiently (Gibbon
and Pain, 1985).
Fig tree (Ficus polita) can also be propagated vegetatively and considering
its temperature requirement, its plantation can easily be established in most
parts of the country. It is one of the tropical plants whose leaves and bark
are cherished and consumed by ruminants (especially sheep and goats) as feeds.
The leaves of this plant are therefore harvested and fed to these animals by
peasant farmers in most rural settings of the Northern Nigeria but not much has
been found in literature regarding its nutrient quality in this part of the
country as an alternative for ruminants’ feed. In addition, the Northern part
of this country, being the major producer of most grains required for poultry
feeds production, is highly prone to unfavourable pattern of rainfall
characterised by prolonged dry spells. As a result, there is a dire need for
the exploration of other alternative sources of feeding stuffs for the feed
industry. In a 100 gram serving, raw figs provide 74 calories, but no essential nutrients in significant content, all having
less than 10% of the Daily
Value
(DV). When dried (uncooked), however, 100 grams of figs supply 249 calories
with the dietary
mineral,
manganese, at high level (24% DV) and several
other minerals and vitamin
K
at moderate levels.
Alchornea cordifolia is a popular browse plant which
forms a good proportion of the green vegetation in the humid tropical zone of Southern
Nigeria. The importance of Alchornea
cordifolia in the region arises from the fact that it is commonly used as a
browse plant by the farmers for their small ruminants (Udedibe and Opara, 1998).
Manniophyton fulvum
is a genus of lianas of
the spurge family
(Euphorbiaceae)
described as a genus in 1864. It contains only one known
species, Manniophyton fulvum,
native to tropical Western and Central Africa from Guinea to Angola. .
Soluble
fraction when analysed in Manniophyton
fulvum is (Crude protein: 144g/kg DM, NDF: 310g/kg DM, ADF: 200g/kg DM,
Tannins: 23.4g/kg DM and Ash: 40g/kg DM). Phytochemical analysis conducted on
the Manniophyton fulvum extracts
revealed the presence of constituents which are known to exhibit medicinal as
well as physiological activities similar to the study done by Aiyegroro and
Okoh (2001).
Elaeis guineensis (palm leaf) is available in high
quantities and shows great potential as forage feed but its usefulness as feed
remains very limited partially because of the low quality of palm leaves. A
previous analysis of the nutrient content of palm leaves revealed its
composition as follows: Dry matter: 54.12%, organic matter: 89.86%, crude protein: 8.51%, crude fibre: 28.48%,
neutral detergent fiber (NDF): 59.11%, acid detergent fiber (ADF): 42.87%,
cellulose: 24.69%, hemicellulose: 16.24% and lignin: 14.21%. Its high lignin content
results in low digestibility and palatability (21 g
kg-1DM) and metabolisable energy. Oil palm fronds (OPF) are
characterised by low fat (4.9 to 6.5 MJ (ME) kg-1 DM) content (Warly
et al., 2015). Ruminants, which limit their inclusion in diets of production animals
(Dahlan et al., 2000; Zahari and Alimon, 2005). Therefore, it is
important to develop to formulate diets containing Oil palm fronds (OPF) which allow optimum growth and productivity for
ruminants (Dahlan et al., 2000). There has been limited scientific
research concerning the inclusion of Oil palm fronds (OPF) in ruminant diets and only some local and
technical reports are available (Dahlan et al., 2000) promoting
relatively high OPF inclusion levels of up to 50% and 30% in beef cattle and
dairy cow diets respectively (Ishida and Hassan, 1997).
Goats are by far the most important
domesticated small ruminants with a population of 53.8million (Food Agriculture
Organisation Statistics, 2008) in Nigeria. Goat production in Nigeria comprises
largely the traditional rearing systems which are characterized by lack of
basic housing, rudimentary health care, irregular and inadequate feeding, lack
of breeding control and record keeping. Between the intensive and the semi
intensive modern approach to goat production in Nigeria, the later has proved
adoptable for the nation’s small ruminant livestock population owing to the
comparative advantage it enjoys over the former (Ahamefule et al., 2000). The WAD stands less than 50cm high at withers and
normally weighs 18-25kg. They are mainly meat producers and well adapted to
humid tropical zone of West Africa because they are trypano-tolerant.
1.2 STATEMENT
OF PROBLEM
Following the growing population in
Nigeria, the pressure to raise livestock such as cattle, sheep and goats has
become very imperative. The increasing cost of feed ingredients, insufficiency
due to seasonal availability of grasses and legumes and encroachment of pasture
lands made it a major requirement to maximise these available nutrients for the
animals. The use of Elaeis guineensis
foliage with some selected browse plants like Alchornea cordifolia, Ficus polita and Manniophyton fulvum have not been popular in ruminant animal
production in Nigeria. Assessing the chemical composition chemical composition
as well as the nutrient intake and digestibility of these browse plants which
are abundantly available in our environments but are not adequately harnessed
could improve feed supply for ruminants especially during the dry periods of
the year.
1.3 OBJECTIVE OF
THE STUDY
The broad objective of the study was
to determine the chemical composition as well as the nutrient intake and
digestibility of four browse specie namely: Elaeis
guineensis, Manniophyton fulvum,
Alchornea cordifolia and Ficus polita
fed to West African Dwarf (WAD) bucks.
The Specific Objectives Were:
i. To determine the
chemical composition of some selected browses (Elaeis guineensis, Manniophyton
fulvum, Alchornea cordifolia and Ficus
polita).
ii. To determine the
anti-nutrients contents which include tannins, phytate, oxalates and
hydrogen-cyanide of browse plants (Elaeis
guineensis, Manniophyton fulvum,
Alchornea cordifolia and Ficus polita).
iii. To determine the
nutrient intake and apparent digestibility coefficient of the browses (Elaeis guineensis, Manniophyton fulvum, Alchornea cordifolia and Ficus polita) fed to West African Dwarf bucks.
iv. To assess the degree of
relationship between some digestion components of West African Dwarf (WAD)
bucks fed browse specie (Elaeis
guineensis, Manniophyton fulvum, Alchornea
cordifolia and Ficus polita)
using simple linear regression and correlation.
1.4 JUSTIFICATION
The rising prices of livestock
feeds, especially in Nigeria and the scarcity of conventional proteins and
energy concentrates for the formulation of feeds have forced animal scientist
to search for less expensive, readily and locally available protein and energy
sources. This underlines the need to examine other plant feed resources that
can thrive all year round and can grow on degraded soil and have the potentials
of providing adequate nutrients for livestock.
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