ABSTRACT
This experiment was conducted to evaluate the effect of Panax ginseng extracts (PGEs) and ascorbic acid (AA) in the management of heat load in finisher broiler chickens in hot humid environment. A total of 225 Anak broiler finisher chickens were used in the experiment and were randomly assigned to treatment groups of 45 birds per treatment with 3 replicates of 15 birds per replicate. The treatment groups were as follows: T1 (Control), T2 (200mg AA), T3 (Composite mixture of 100mg AA: 100mg PGEs), T4 (200mg of PGEs) and T5 (300mg PGEs). PGEs at 200mg significantly increased packed cell volume in T4 (27.65%) showing possible increase in blood formation. The recorded value of white blood cell in T4 (2.97 x103/µl) and T3 (2.78 x103/µl), which is within normal range shows that PGEs at 200mg single oral administration or when mixed at 100mg PGEs: 100mg AA enhanced the cellular immunity of the mature broiler chickens. The significantly (P<0.05) increased values of lymphocytes in T5 (81.57%); T4 (46.47%); T3 (38.43) and T2 (38.78%) suggested that single oral administration of AA and PGEs or combined administration could induce antigen response in broiler chickens exposed to increased heat load. The significantly (P<0.01) low value of globulin recorded in T1 (0.83mg/dl) indicated a reduction in the disease-fighting ability of the body system which could result in high mortality. T4 and T5 similarly recorded significantly low (P<0.05) mean values in oxidative stress markers of homocystein (10.25ng/ml and 8.58ng/ml respectively); adrenocorticotrophic hormone (1.96ng/ml and 1.67ng/ml respectively) and triiodothyronine (0.76ng/ml and 0.58ng/ml respectively); probably suggestive of a synergestic effect to reduce heat production. The average liver weight of the experimental broiler chickens was significantly (P<0.05) higher in the control group T(5.27g) than in T3 (3.76g), T2 (3.06g), T5 (2.76g) and T4 (2.52g) suggesting that apart from AA having a protective effect on the liver, combining it with PGEs could enhance its protective effects during periods of heat load in hot humid environment. The non-significant values (P>0.05) of linear body traits obtained in this result implies that oral administration of AA and PGEs had no significant influence on linear body traits of broiler chickens exposed to heat load. The lower significant (P<0.05) values of mortality recorded in T3 (5.83%), T4 (6.00%) and T5 (6.01%) suggested that PGEs have a positive effect on the immune modulators and hence, it is recommended for use at combined level of 100mg AA: 100mg PGEs ratio or administered singly at 200mg in the management of heat load to enhance production, blood characteristics, stimulating antibody responses to immunization against various pathogens in organic broiler production in hot humid environment.
TABLE
OF CONTENTS
PAGE
Title page i
Declaration ii
Certification iii
Dedication iv
Acknowledgements v
Table of Contents vi
List of Tables xiii
List of Figures xiv
List of Plates xv
Abstract xvi
CHAPTER 1:
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Information 1
1.2 Statement
of Problem 5
1.3 Objectives
of the Study 6
1.4 Justification
of the Study 7
CHAPTER 2:
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. Poultry Production in Hot Humid Tropical
Environment. 8
2.2. Adaptation of Broiler Chicken to Hot Humid
Topical Environment. 9
2.2.1. Radiation 11
2.2.2. Convection 11
2.2.3. Conduction 11
2.2.4. Evaporation 11
2.2.5. How body heat is produced 13
2.2.6. How birds lose heat 14
2.2.7. How birds respond to increasing temperature 15
2.3. Panting in Broiler Chicken 17
2.4. Measuring Thermal Stress 20
2.5. Rectal Temperature 21
2.6. Temperature-Humidity Index (THI) 22
2.6.1. Effect of temperature humidity index on rectal
temperature of birds 24
2.7. Ginseng 26
2.7.1. Botanical classification of Panax ginseng 27
2.7.2. Chemical composition of Panax ginseng 30
2.7.3. Heat stress and ginseng 32
2.7.4. Ginseng and oxidative stress 32
2.7.5. Anti-oxidants 36
2.7.6. Super oxide dismutase (SOD) 36
2.7.7. Catalase (CAT) 37
2.7.8. Glutathione peroxidase (GPx) 37
2.7.9. Poly unsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) 37
2.8. Biological effects of Panax ginseng 38
2.8.1. Anti-oxidant effects 38
2.8.2. Aphrodisiac effects 38
2.8.3. Cardiovascular effects 38
2.8.4. Cellular effects 39
2.8.5. Cholesterol effects 40
2.8.6. Blood circulation effects 40
2.8.7. Endocrine effects 40
2.8.8. Hormonal effects 41
2.8.9. Fertility effects 42
2.8.10. Sexual effects 43
2.8.11. Hepato-protective effects 44
2.8.12. Immuno-modulating activity 44
2.8.13. Lipogenesis effects 45
2.8.14. Protein synthesis effects 45
2.8.15. Pulmonary effects 45
2.8.16. Pulse alteration 45
2.8.17. Steroid-like effects 46
2.8.18. Stimulatory/growth effects 46
2.9. Ascorbic Acid 46
2.9.1. Ascorbic acid supplementation of poultry ration 47
CHAPTER 3:
MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1. Location and Duration of the Experiment 49
3.2. Experimental Animals and Management 49
3.3. Experimental Design and Experimental Materials 55
3.4. Treatment Administration 57
3.5. Experimental Procedures and Data Collection 58
3.5.1. Ambient temperature-relative humidity index and
rectal temperature 58
3.5.2. Panting observation 58
3.5.3. Description of panting rate 59
3.6. Haematological and Biochemical Parameters 61
3.6.1. Haematological parameters evaluated 61
3.6.2. Biochemical parameters evaluated 62
3.7. Enzymatic Anti-oxidants and Oxidative Stress
Markers Evaluation 62
3.8. Production Parameters 64
3.8.1. Body weight 64
3.8.2. Feed and water consumption 64
3.8.3. Carcass evaluation 65
3.8.4. Linear body measurements 65
3.9. Statistical analysis 66
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS
AND DISCUSSION
4.1. Haematological Parameters 67
4.2. Serum Biochemical Parameters 72
4.3. Enzymatic Antioxidant Parameters 76
4.4. Oxidative Stress Parameters 78
4.5. Carcass Characteristics 80
4.6. Organ Weight Characteristics 83
4.7. Linear Body Characteristics 85
4.8. Rectal Temperature Characteristics 86
4.9. Temperature Humidity Index (THI) 89
4.10. Panting Rate 92
4.11. Production Performance Parameters 95
CHAPTER 5:
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1. Conclusion 100
5.2. Recommendations 101
References 102
LIST OF TABLES
Table
Page
2.1. Chemical Composition of Panax ginseng 31
2.2. The Reactive Oxygen and Nitrogen Species 33
2.3. Anti-oxidant Defense Mechanisms 35
3.1. Vaccination and medication Program during
the Experiment 51
3.2. Formulated Broiler Starter Diet 53
3.3. Formulated Broiler Finisher Diet 54
3.4. Treatment Specifications 56
3.5. Panting Gradient (Panting Rate) 60
4.1.
Effect of Panax ginseng extracts and ascorbic acid on
haematology of finisher broiler chickens exposed to
heat load 67
4.2. Effect of Panax ginseng extracts and ascorbic acid on serum
biochemical
parameters of finisher broiler chickens exposed to
heat load 72
4.3.
Effect of Panax ginseng extracts and ascorbic acid on enzymatic
antioxidant
parameters of finisher broiler chickens exposed to
heat load 76
4.4. Effect of Panax ginseng extracts and ascorbic acid on oxidative
stress parameters of finisher broiler chickens exposed
to heat load 78
4.5.
Effect of Panax ginseng extracts and ascorbic acid on carcass
characteristics of finisher broiler chickens
exposed to heat load 80
4.6.
Effect of Panax ginseng extracts and ascorbic acid on organ
weight characteristics of finisher broiler chickens
exposed to
heat load 83
4.7.
Effect of Panax ginseng extracts and ascorbic acid on linear body
characteristics
of finisher broiler chickens exposed to heat load 85
4.8.
Effect of Panax ginseng extracts and ascorbic acid on rectal
temperature characteristics of finisher broiler
chickens exposed
to heat load 86
4.9.
Effect of Panax ginseng extracts and ascorbic acid on temperature
Humidity index of finisher broiler chickens exposed to
heat load 89
4.10.
Effect of Panax ginseng extracts and ascorbic acid on panting rate
of finisher broiler chickens exposed to heat load 92
4.11.
Effect of Panax ginseng extracts and ascorbic acid on Production
parameters
of finisher broiler chickens exposed to heat load 95
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
Page
2.1.
The Response of Birds to Increasing Temperature 12
4.1.
Panting rate of effect of Panax ginseng extracts
and ascorbic acid in
the management of heat load in finisher
broiler chickens in hot humid
environment 98
4.2.
Rectal temperature of effect of Panax
ginseng extracts and ascorbic
acid in the management of heat load in
finisher broiler chickens in
hot humid environment 99
LIST OF PLATES
Plate
Page
2.1. Energy and
heat flow in poultry 10
2.2. Response of
chicken to heat load 13
2.3. Heat and
moisture balance for a naturally ventilated broiler chicken 16
2.4. Panting
broiler chicken 17
2.5. Signs of heat
stress 19
2.6. Chicken
exposure to environmental heat (external heat) 20
2.7. Response of
chicken to heat stress 23
2.8. Root of Panax ginseng 28
2.9. Panax
ginseng root and leaves 29
CHAPTER 1
1.1
BACKGROUND
INFORMATION
The
livestock industry in Nigeria has continued to witness tremendous developments
but the animal protein needs of the citizens have not fully been achieved.
Broiler production is important in food security for the rapidly increasing
human populations of the world. In recent years, poultry production has been
extended into hot climates, despite the fact that high environmental
temperatures arrest the growth and production potential of poultry (Khan et al., 2012). Today, a large number of
the world’s poultry population is found in regions where heat load is a major
management problem at some particular periods of the bird’s productive lives
(Ajakaiye et al., 2011). Farm animals
including poultry species have a known zone of thermal comfort (ZTC) which
depends on the type of species, the physiological status of the animals, the
relative humidity, velocity of ambient air and the degree of solar radiation
(Ajakaiye et al., 2011).
Evidently,
poultry farmers do experience economic loss because ambient temperature conditions
intermittently venture outside the ZTC (St-Pierre et al., 2003). Heat stress results from a negative balance between
the net amount of energy produced by the animal to its surrounding environment
and the amount of heat energy produced by the animal (St-Pierre et al., 2003). Heat stress adversely
affects feed intake, body weight, growth, carcass characteristics. St-Pierre et al. (2003), opined that the total
annual financial losses to the livestock industry as a result of heat stress
are between 1.69 and 2.36 billion US Dollars. Of these losses, 128 to 165
million US dollars was in the poultry sector.
Several
strategies have been suggested to relieve the negative impact of heat load and
improve poultry performance during this heat stress phase. Environmental
strategies include keeping birds in open-sided cages, increasing ventilation,
intermittent light schedule, early heating conditioning, early feed restriction
and lowering stocking density (NRC, 1981; Siegel, 1995, Lin et al., 2006). Genetic strategies
include selection of heat tolerant lines and using major genes (naked neck
gene, frizzle gene and dwarf gene) have also been proven beneficial.
Due
to high costs and impracticality, some of the aforementioned recommendations
cannot be applied satisfactorily. Alternatively, nutritional manipulation have
been a common approach in poultry production (Sahin et al., 2009). Nutritional modification of the poultry food during
the period of increased heat load mainly impacts energy, protein and other
specific nutrients that are considered to be the prime cause of cost-effective
losses associated with heat stress (Lin et
al., 2006; Sahin et al., 2009).
Decreasing the amount of protein with associated increases in amino acid
balance has been found to relieve the negative effects of increased heat load
(Sahin et al., 2009). Supplementation
of electrolytes in cold drinking water also favorably improves weight gain in
broilers and egg shell quality in laying hens under heat-stress (Ait-Boulahsen et al., 1995, Balnave and Muheereza,
1997; Hayat et al., 1999; Lin et al., 2006). The use of other
nutrients like probiotics, trace elements and vitamins has also been found
helpful in relieving heat stress adverse effects (Lin et al., 2006; Sahin et al.,
2009).
Globally,
the need for a phytotherapy which is the use of plants for their healing
abilities especially as animals respond to any influence or stress that is
eminent. This is because of the growing interest in therapeutic strategies with
neuro-protectants aimed at counteracting oxidative stress induced damage
associated with neurodegenerative diseases (Moosman and Behl, 2002; Barnham et al., 2004). Also, there is increasing
advocacy for organic farming within our climes. Consequently, researches geared
towards finding non-antibiotic substances, especially of natural origin, have
been stimulated in rabbit production as stated by Iwuji and Herbert, (2012).
Animals reared without antibiotics but with natural substances that perform the
roles of antibiotics and fed with feeds from non-genetically engineered plants,
are more valued because they are safer for consumption. Various natural
substances or plant origin are being explored in this area. One of these
substances or plant materials, which may be seeds, herbs, or roots, is Panax ginseng.
Ginseng
is one of the eleven types of slow-growing perennial plants which have plump
roots, belong to the genus Panax, of
the family Araliaceae (De Jong et al., 2005). Ginseng is found in North
America and in Eastern Asia (mostly Korea, North East China, Bhutan, Eastern
Siberia), naturally in chiller weathers. Panax
vietnamensiss, discovered in Vietnam
is the Southernmost ginseng known (Baeg and Seung, 2013). The major active
components of ginseng are a diverse group of steroidal saponins, labeled
ginsenosides (Ang-Lee et al., 2001).
Ginsenosides are thought to be all-healing and are digested into
pharmacologically active substances by intestinal micro-organisms (Lee et al., 2004). Every part of the plant
has pharmacological action, but the root is commonly used and has higher
ginsenoside content (WHO, 1999). Apart from ginsenosides, ginseng contains a
lot of chemical components which include antioxidants, essential amino acids
(especially arginine), fatty acids, calcium, cobalt, copper, peptidoglycans,
phosphorus, vitamins (especially ascorbic acid and B-vitamins), volatile oil,
zinc etc. (Zhang et al., 2001, Cho et al., 2001; Glock et al., 2002).
The
history of scientific research on ginseng started as early as 1854 by Garrques,
an American scientist who isolated a saponin from ginseng; but the actual
introduction of ginseng to the West happened after World War II (De Jong et al., 2005). Since then, ginseng has
been widely researched, characterized, and various chemical components
identified, of which ginsenosides (saponins) are the most prevalent and active
component (Ang-Lee et al., 2001).
Various studies on human and animal models have demonstrated a wide range of
biological effects and activities of Panax
ginseng, making it to be regarded as a universal remedy for many ailments
(all-healing). Panax ginseng has been
demonstrated in scientific studies to possess antioxidant properties, enhance
immune function, and synthesis of nitric oxide (De Jong et al., 2005; kim et al.,
2005). Numerous other demonstrated properties of Panax ginseng include, but not only analgesic effects, anti-aging
effects, anti-cancer effects, anti-inflammatory, anti-microbial, anti-platelet
aggregation, lipid lowering effects, neurological effects, endocrine effects,
haematological effects, hepato-protective effects, and protein synthesis
effects (Metori et al., 1997;
Jiangming et al., 2000; Kim et al., 2000; Nah et al., 2000; Yun et al.,
2001; Peng et al., 2001; Pan et al., 2002; Lee et al., 2005; Ahn et al.,
2006).
Unfortunately,
the wide range of researches involving ginseng in both human and animal models
have not really favoured poultry production, as evidenced by very scanty
studies using poultry. Over the years, animal model studies with ginseng have
focused mainly on rats and mice, with very little on livestock species like
poultry, pigs and rabbits. It therefore becomes imperative to widen ginseng
studies in livestock species like poultry, particularly broiler chicken, which
is a major source of animal protein for man. Therefore, the many beneficial
properties of Panax ginseng in human
and other animal models reported in numerous studies will be necessary to be
employed in broiler production.
Furthermore,
integrating Panax ginseng dietary
inclusion with ascorbic acid in counteracting the damaging effects of increased
heat load among broiler chicken could be a more effective way of maximizing the
biological benefits of Panax ginseng
extracts in broiler chicken diet. Ascorbic acid has been recommended in poultry
feeds as a supplement to alleviate stress, on the assumption that during
increased heat load, the requirements may exceed the synthesizing ability (Gous
and Morris, 2005). Also, it has been opined that birds under heat stress can
recognize feed supplemented with ascorbic acid and adjust their need according
to their requirements. Kutlu and Forbes (1993) showed that broilers under heat
stress utilized more supplemented feed when ascorbic acid fortified feed was
coloured. Consequently, this study evaluated the growth performance and
physiological responses of heat-stressed broiler chicken administered Panax ginseng extracts (PGEs) and ascorbic acid in a warm wet
environment.
1.2
STATEMENT
OF PROBLEM
In
the recent times, poultry production has been extended into hot climates
despite the fact that high environmental temperatures arrest the growth and
production potential of poultry (Khan et
al., 2012). Heat stress adversely affects feed intake, body weight, carcass
characteristics and other traits associated with successful production, and is
the principal cause of mortality for birds in tropical environments (Roberts
and Ball, 1998). Therefore, the mission to achieve a robust broiler production
in hot humid environments like some parts of Nigeria requires that concerted
efforts be directed to investigating the combined effects of Panax ginseng extracts (PGEs) and ascorbic acid on physiological
and biological activities of broiler chicken. Hence, dietary supplementation of
Panax ginseng extracts (PGEs) and ascorbic acid (AA) in the
broiler chicken diet is hoped to ameliorate the harmful effects of heat load in
broiler chicken as well as adaptogenically produce safer broiler table meat
devoid of high deposits of veterinary antibiotics residues.
Incidentally,
the adverse effects of synthetic materials like drugs on animal products and
the advocacy for organic farming in livestock production (Iwuji and Herbert,
2012) necessitates research in alternative natural sources to synthetic drugs
in livestock production (broiler production in particular). Considering the
harsh tropical environment in countries like Nigeria, where heat load arising
from high temperature, and more debilitating scenario of extreme panting
conditions as obtainable in most hot, humid tropical environments; which
adversely affect broiler production, it becomes imperative that these problems
need extensive research to proffer solutions to them.
1.3
OBJECTIVES
OF THE STUDY
The
general objective of this study was to assess the effect of Panax ginseng extracts (PGEs) and ascorbic acid (AA) in the
management of heat load in a warm wet environment. The specific objectives were
to determine:
(a) the
effect of Panax ginseng extracts and
ascorbic acid on haematology of finisher broiler chickens exposed to heat load
(b) the
effect of Panax ginseng extracts and
ascorbic acid on serum biochemical parameters of finisher broiler chickens
exposed to heat load
(c) the
effect of Panax ginseng extracts and
ascorbic acid on enzymatic antioxidant parameters of finisher broiler chickens
exposed to heat load
(d) the
effect of Panax ginseng extracts and
ascorbic acid on oxidative stress parameters
of finisher broiler chickens exposed to heat load
(e) the
effect of Panax ginseng extracts and
ascorbic acid on carcass characteristics of finisher broiler chickens exposed
to heat load
(f) the
effect of Panax ginseng extracts and
ascorbic acid on organ weight
characteristics of finisher broiler chickens exposed to heat load
(g) the
effect of Panax ginseng extracts and
ascorbic acid on linear body
characteristics of finisher broiler chickens exposed to heat load
(h) the
effect of Panax ginseng extracts and
ascorbic acid on rectal temperature characteristics of finisher broiler
chickens exposed to heat load
(i) the
effect of Panax ginseng extracts and
ascorbic acid on temperature humidity
index of finisher broiler chickens exposed to heat load
(j) the
effect of Panax ginseng extracts and
ascorbic acid on panting rate of
finisher broiler chickens exposed to heat load
(k) the
effect of Panax ginseng extracts and
ascorbic acid on Production parameters of finisher broiler chickens exposed to
heat load
1.4. JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY
The
increasing demand for poultry production for efficient nutritional needs of
rapidly growing Nigerian population, and the prevailing global climatic warming
with serious thermal stress implies a deregulation in the thermo-neutral zone
of the animals, which could lead to changes in the biological functions of
animals. Finding the effects of Panax
ginseng extracts and ascorbic acid in the recently very hot-humid tropical
environment, is pertinent.
Literature
and data on various growth and physiological effects of administrating Panax ginseng extracts and ascorbic acid
emanating from this study are required in making recommendations to poultry
farmers and particularly broiler breeders on the combined use of Panax ginseng extracts and ascorbic acid
in broiler production.
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