ABSTRACT
The groundwater qualities of some settlements in four local government areas (Fagge, Dala, Ungogo and Gwale) in Kano State, Nigeria were determined. The study was based on the assessment of physicochemical parameters of groundwater (wells and boreholes) samples. Fourty groundwater samples, ten from each local government area were collected and analyzed for the following parameters: pH, electrical conductivity (EC), temperature, total solids (TS), total dissolved solids (TDS), total suspended solids (TSS), salinity, chloride, turbidity, total hardness (T.H), alkalinity, phosphate (PO4), nitrate (NO3), sulphate (SO4), sodium (Na), magnesium (Mg), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr) and lead (Pb). Standard laboratory analysis were carried out to determine the concentration of these parameters and major comparisons were equally made with World Health Organization (WHO), Standard Organization of Nigeria (SON) and Water Quality Index (WQI) standard ratings. The data showed variation of the investigated parameters as follows: pH (5.11 – 7.40), temperature (27.10 – 31.83) ºC, EC (419 – 4870) µS/cm, TS (268.10 – 2776.10) mg/l, TDS (226.33 – 2743) mg/l, TSS (23.07 – 61.24) mg/l, salinity (0.15 – 2.33) ppt, chloride (65.08 – 970.33) mg/l, turbidity (0.37 – 23.9) NTU, T.H (16 – 134.26) mg/l, alkalinity (16.27 – 89.50) mg/l, PO4 (3.65 – 55.59) mg/l, NO3 (5.25 – 33.27) mg/l, SO4 (25.06 – 446) mg/l, Na (0.006 – 0.070) mg/l, Mg (0.004 – 0.889) mg/l, Cd (0.004 – 0.055) mg/l, Cr (0.038 – 0.096) mg/l and Pb (0.022 – 0.14) mg/l. The concentration of some of the investigated parameters were above the standard quality for drinking water. Lead, cadmium and chromium for instance, were found to exceed 0.01mg/l, 0.003mg/l and 0.005mg/l respectively which is the WHO maximum permissible limits. This is as a result of improper discharge of untreated effluents in the environment which led to the contamination of groundwater sources. It is therefore recommended that proper and constant monitoring of disposal processes for industrial as well as domestic effluents in the study area is employed to guarantee safe water for drinking and domestic purposes.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title
page i
Certification ii
Declaration iii
Dedication iv
Acknowledgement v
Table
of Contents
List of
Tables
List of
Figures
Abstract
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study 1
1.2 Statement
of the Problem 2
1.3 Aim and Objectives 3
1.4 Justification of the Study 3
1.5 Scope and Limitations 4
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE
REVIEW
2.1 Groundwater contamination in Kano and
other environs 5
2.2 Water 14
2.3 Groundwater 16
2.3.1 Ground
water occurrence 16
2.3.2
Groundwater pollution/contamination 17
2.4 Water Quality Index 18
2.5 Physicochemical
Parameters 20
2.5.1 pH 20
2.5.2 Electrical
conductivity 21
2.5.3 Temperature 22
2.5.4 Alkalinity 23
2.5.5 Salinity 23
2.5.6 Turbidity 24
2.5.7 Total hardness 24
2.5.8 Total dissolved solid (TDS) 25
2.5.9 Total suspended solids (TSS) 26
2.5.10 Biological oxygen demand (BOD) 26
2.5.11 Nitrate 27
2.5.12 Phosphate 27
2.5.13 Sulphate 28
2.6. Metallic Pollutants 29
2.6.1 Sodium 29
2.6.2 Magnesium 29
2.6.3 Heavy metals and their effects 30
2.6.3.1 Cadmium 31
2.6.3.2 Lead 32
2.6.3.3 Chromium 32
2.7 Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometric
Analysis 33
2.7.1 Theory of atomic absorption
spectrophotometer 33
CHAPTER 3: MATERIALS AND
METHODS 35
3.1 Study Areas 35
3.2 Sampling 38
3.3 Sampling Sites 39
3.4 Methodology 41
3.4.1 Determination of pH 41
3.4.2 Determination of electrical conductivity
(EC) 41
3.4.3 Determination of temperature 41
3.4.4 Measurement of solids (APHA, 2016) 41
3.4.4.1 Total solids 42
3.4.4.2 Dissolved solids 42
3.4.4.3 Suspended solids 43
3.4.5 Measurement of salinity 43
3.4.6 Determination of chloride 43
3.4.7 Determination of turbidity 43
3.4.8 Determination of total hardness 44
3.4.9 Determination of alkalinity 44
3.4.10 BOD determination 44
3.4.11 Determination of sulphate 45
3.4.12 Determination of nitrate 46
3.4.13 Determination of phosphate 47
3.5 Digestion
of Water Sample 47
3.5.1
Procedure for Water Digestion 48
3.6 Statistical Analysis 48
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND
DISCUSSION 49
4.1 Results 49
4.2 Presentation of overall means in multiple
bar charts 80
4.2.1 pH, salinity, turbidity and biological
oxygen demand 80
4.2.2
Temperature, total suspended solids, total hardness, alkalinity and
chloride 81
4.2.3
Electrical conductivity, total hardness and total dissolved solids 82
4.2.4 Phosphate, nitrate and sulphate 84
4.2.5 Sodium, magnesium, cadmium, chromium and
lead. 84
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION AND
RECOMMENDATIONS 86
5.1 Conclusion 86
5.2 Recommendations 86
References
Appendices
LIST
OF TABLES
3.1
Sampling sites and code names for
Fagge L.G.A 39
3.2
Sampling sites and code names of
Dala L.G.A 39
3.3
Sampling sites and code names of
Ungogo L.G.A 40
3.4
Sampling sites and code names of
Gwale L.G.A 40
4.1 Mean
standard deviation concentrations of
physicochemical parameters for
Fagge LGA
50
4.2 Mean
standard deviation concentrations of metals
for Fagge LGA 51
4.3 Mean
standard deviation concentrations of
physicochemical parameters for
Dala LGA 57
4.4 Mean
standard deviation concentrations of metals
for Dala LGA
4.5 Mean
standard deviation concentrations of
physicochemical parameters for
Ungogo LGA 64
4.6 Mean
standard deviation concentrations of metals
for Ungogo
LGA 65
4.7 Mean
standard deviation concentrations of
physicochemical parameters for
Gwale LGA 71
4.8 Mean
standard deviation concentrations of metals
for Gwale LGA 72
4.9
Overall mean values and standard
deviation of all the physicochemical parameters
for the four local government areas
compared with WHO and SON standards 78
4.10
Overall mean values and standard deviation of all the metals for the four local
government areas compared with WHO and
SON standards. 79
LIST OF FIGURES
3.1 Map
of kano state showing the study areas 36
3.2 Map showing the sampling sites 37
4.1 Mean values of pH, salinity, turbidity and
BOD 80
4.2 Mean values for temperature, total suspended
solids, total hardness, alkalinity
and chloride 81
4.3 Means
values of electrical conductivity, total solids and total dissolved
solids 83
4.4
Mean values of phosphate, nitrate
and sulphate. 84
4.5 Means
values for sodium, magnesium, cadmium, chromium and lead. 86
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND
OF THE STUDY
Water
is a liquid at ambient conditions, but it often co-exists on earth with its
solid state being ice, and gaseous state being water vapour or steam (Ameyibor
and Wiredu, 1991).
Human
bodies are approximately 60% water, blood is at least 50% water and the human
brain is made of 77% water (Stanistski et al., 2000). Water is a
chemical substance essential to all forms of life. Nigeria is rich with large amount
of groundwater resources. For instance, JICA (2014) estimated the total
renewable groundwater resource potential in Nigeria to be 155.8 billion cubic
metres per year (BCM/year). This resource is important in the social and
economic life of the people in terms of domestic, industrial and agricultural
use.
On
a global scale, groundwater represents the world’s largest and most important
source of fresh potable water and it is the most extracted raw material with
withdrawal rates currently in the estimated range of 982 km3/year (Smith
et al., 2016). Groundwater supplies
most drinking water worldwide and about 70% of groundwater withdrawn is used
for agriculture (Gleeson et al., 2016)
and has been beneficial for meeting rural water demand in the Sub-Saharan
Africa (MacDonald and Davies, 2005; Harvey, 2004). Due to the inability of
governments to meet the ever-increasing water demand, most people in rural
areas resort to groundwater sources such as boreholes as an alternative water
source. Humans can abstract groundwater through a borehole, which is drilled
into the aquifer for industrial, agricultural and domestic use. However,
groundwater is vulnerable to pollution, which may degrade their quality.
Generally,
groundwater quality varies from place to place, sometimes depending on seasonal
changes (Trivede et al., 2010; Vaishali
and Punila, 2013), the types of soils, rocks and surfaces through which it
moves (Seth et al., 2014; Thivya et al., 2014). Naturally occurring contaminants
are present in the rocks and sediments. As groundwater flows through the
sediments, metals such as iron and manganese dissolve and are later found in
high concentrations in the water (Moyo, 2013). Also, human activities can alter
the natural composition of groundwater through the disposal of chemicals and
microbial matter on the land surface and into soils, or through injection of
wastes directly into groundwater. Industrial discharges (Govindarajan and
Senthilnathan, 2014), urban activities, agriculture, groundwater plumage and
disposal of waste (Bello et al.,
2013) can affect groundwater quality. Pesticides and fertilizers applied to
lawns and crops can accumulate and migrate to the water tables thus affecting
both the physical, chemical and microbial quality of water. Therefore, the
monitoring of groundwater quality is of paramount importance both in the
developed and developing countries (Nash and McCall, 1994). The key to
sustainable water resources is to ensure that the quality of water resources is
suitable for their intended uses, while at the same time allowing them to be
used and developed to a certain extent.
1.2 STATEMENT
OF THE PROBLEM
Contamination
of drinking water by metals is a serious health risk for humans due to the
ability of such metals to cause different kinds of diseases. Past studies on
heavy metal contamination of drinking water sources in parts of Kano Metropolis
have indicated concentrations of metals like Fe, Cr and Pb were above
recommended levels (Sheshe and Magashi, 2014; Dabo and Saleh, 2017). This study
focuses on the determination of some physicochemical parameters and
concentrations of metals such as Cd, Cr, Na and Pb in groundwater (boreholes
and wells) samples from Fagge, Dala, Ungogo and Gwale Local Government Areas of
Kano State.
1.3 AIM AND
OBJECTIVES
The
aim of this research is to determine some physicochemical parameters and metals
(Cd, Cr, Na and Pb) concentrations in groundwater (boreholes and wells) samples
from four Local Government Areas of Kano State. The aim will be achieved with
the following objectives:
a)
Collection of water
samples from the four LGAs
b)
Determination of some
physicochemical parameters
c)
Determination of metal
concentrations using Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy and Flame Photometry.
d) Comparison
of results with past studies and drinking water quality standards.
1.4 JUSTIFICATION
OF THE STUDY
The
quality of drinking water in Fagge, Dala, Ungogo and Gwale Local Government
Areas of Kano State has become a major concern to the community. The widespread
reports on pollutants in groundwater have increased in recent years and have
resulted in increased public concern about the quality of groundwater. In
addition, inhabitants are becoming increasingly dependent on groundwater which
have doubtful water quality especially during the dry season. Most people
depend on alternative water sources such as rainwater, hand-dug wells and
boreholes constructed with doubtful water quality in the areas due to lack of
standard treated water pipe borne water supply system. It is important that the
quality of groundwater sources in the area is monitored on a continuous basis
due to the potential health impacts on the population.
1.5 SCOPE
AND LIMITATIONS
The
study focuses on the determination of the concentration of some physicochemical
parameters and heavy metals in groundwater samples from Fagge, Dala, Ungogo and
Gwale Local Government Areas. A total of forty groundwater samples were
collected, ten from each of the four local government areas. Analysis were
carried out on the water samples using standard methods described by APHA
(2016) and results were compared with similar studies carried out by other
researchers and was also compared with guidelines recommended by WHO and SON
(2017) for portable drinking water. Difficulties were encountered in the
collection and transportation of the samples as some of the water samples were
collected within residential areas. The study was also limited by lack of
funds.
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