ABSTRACT
This research work was carried out to examine the physicochemical and phytochemical constituents of honey and Shea butter samples respectively and their antibacterial effect on Staphylococcus aureus and Klebsiella pneumoniae. The physicochemical screening of honey showed that the honey samples used have low water activity, low moisture content, low pH value below 4.0 and Ash while the phytochemical analysis of Shea butter revealed the presence of Saponnins, Tannins, Alkaloids, Steroid and Phenol. The organisms Staphylococcus aureus and Klebsiella pneumoniae were isolated and identified by standard microbiological procedures. The antibacterial screening protocol was carried out by disc diffusion method. The result obtained showed that the honey alone was able to give an inhibition zone that is up to 29mm and the Shea butter gave up to 26mm. The synergistic effect of honey and Shea butter showed higher inhibitory effect of 42mm at 100% concentration. The standard antibiotics; Ciprofloxacin and Streptomycin had the highest mean of 36mm. The synergism is hereby recommended for its high antibacterial properties for therapeutic purposes and can be used as an alternative medicine against Staphylococcus aureus and Klebsiella pneumoniae infections. It may be even more conventional to use this natural means as it has very low antibiotic resistance compared to synthetic antibiotic.
TABLE OF CONTENT
Title
page i
Certification
ii
Dedication
iii
Acknowledgement
iv
Table
of Content v
List
of tables vi
Abstract
x
CHAPTER
ONE 1
1.0
INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Aims and Objectives 2
CHAPTER TWO 3
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW 3
2.1 Honey 4
2.1.1 Extraction 6
2.1.2 Local test for real honeys 6
2.1.3 Classification of honey 7
2.1.3.1 Crystallized
honey 7
2.1.3.2
Pasteurized Honey 7
2.1.3.3 Raw honey 7
2.1.3.4
Ultrasonicated honey 7
2.1.4 Mode of action of some of the
antibacterial substances in honey. 7
2.1.4.1 High osmotic pressure 8
2.1.4.2 Low water activity 8
2.1.4.3 Glucose oxidase enzyme 8
2.1.4.4 Low pH/ acidic environment 8
2.2
Medical Uses of Honey 8
2.2.1
Remedy for Diarrhea 8
2.2.2
Gastritis/gastric Ulcers 9
2.2.3
Wound healing 9
2.2.4
Treatment for arthritis: 9
2.2.5
For post-operative wound infection: 9
2.2.6 Adverse reaction of honey 10
2.3
Shea Butter Tree 10
2.3.1 Extraction of Essential Oil from Shea Kernel 11
2.3.2
Composition of Shea butter 12
2.3.3 Shea Butter Phenolics 12
2.3.4 Therapeutic uses of Shea
Butter 12
2.3.5 General uses of shea butter 13
2.4
Antimicrobial Agent 13
2.5
Antimicrobial synergy 14
2.6
Antimicrobial Susceptibility and Resistance 15
2.7 An overview of the test organisms 15
2.7.1 Staphylococcus aureus 15
2.7.2
Klebsiellapneumoniae 16
CHAPTER THREE
3.0
MATERIALS AND METHODS 17
3.1
Collection of test samples 17
3.1.1 Collection of clinical samples 17
3.2
Physicochemical Analysis of Honey 17
3.2.1
Colour determination 17
3.2.2
PH determination 17
3.2.3
Moisture content 18
3.2.4 Ash content 18
3.2.5
Water activity 18
3.3 Phytochemical Analysis of Shea Butter 18
3.3.1
Detection of alkaloids 18
3.3.2
Detection of flavonoids 19
3.3.3
Detection of saponins 19
3.3.4
Detection of tannins 19
3.3.5
Detection of phenol and polyphenol 19
3.3.6
Detection of steroids 19
3.4 Preparation of media 20
3.5
Isolation and identification of bacteria from upper respiratory tract 20
3.5.1 Gram staining 20
3.5.2 Indole Test 21
3.5.3 Catalase Test 21
3.5.4 Citrate test 21
3.5.5
Oxidase test 21
3.5.6
Coagulase test
3.6
Antibacterial activity testing 22
3.6.1 Preparation
of test samples 22
3.6.2 Sensitivity
test 23
3.7 Synergistic
antimicrobial assays 24
3.8 Determination of Minimum Inhibition
Concentration (MIC) 25
3.9 Determination
of Minimum Bactericidal Concentration 25
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0
RESULTS 26
CHAPTER
FIVE
5.0 DISCUSION, CONCLUSION AND
RECOMMENDATION 35
5.1 Discussion 35
5.2 Conclusion 37
5.3
Recommendation 37
REFERENCES 38
LIST OF TABLES
|
Table
|
Title
|
Page
|
|
Table
1
|
Composition of honey
|
5
|
|
Table 2
|
Physico-chemical
analysis of honey
|
28
|
|
Table 3
|
Phytochemical
analysis of shea butter
|
29
|
|
Table
4
|
Identification of Staphylococcus aureusand Klebsiella pneumonia
|
30
|
|
Table
5
|
Effects
Of Honey And Shea Butter On Staphylococcus
Aureus
|
31
|
|
Table
6
|
Antibiotics
used on Staphylococcus aureus
|
32
|
|
Table
7
|
Effects
Of Honey And Shea Butter On Klebsiella
pneumonia
|
33
|
|
Table
8
|
Standard Antibiotics used on Klebsiella pneumoniae
|
34
|
CHAPTER
ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Antimicrobial
agents are essentially important in reducing the global burden of infectious
diseases. However, as resistant pathogens develop and spread, the effectiveness
of antibiotics is diminished. This type of bacterial resistance to the
antimicrobial agents possess a very serious threat to public health, and for
all kinds of antibiotics, including the major last resort drugs, the
frequencies of resistance are increasing worldwide (Levy and Marshal, 2004).
Therefore, alternative antimicrobial strategies are urgently needed, and thus
this situation has led to a re-evaluation of the therapeutic use of ancient
remedies, such as plants based products including honey and shea butter (Mandal
et al., 2010).
The
use of traditional medicine to treat infections has been practiced since the
origin of mankind and honey produced by Apis
mellifera and shea butter produced from Vitellaria
paradox are one of the old traditional medicine considered to be important
in the treatment of several human ailments (Onyeagba et al., 2004). Currently, many researchers have reported the
antibacterial activity of honey and found that natural unheated honey has some
broad spectrum antibacterial activity
when tested against pathogenic bacteria, oral bacteria as well as food
spoilage bacterial (Lusby et al., 2005). Today,
traditional structure of medicine is being practiced on many accounts.
Medicinal plants products such as shea butter and other antibacterial products
are having great impact in the field of curing diseases and as a source of
medicines for a wide variety of human ailments (Onyeagba et al., 2004). Also shea butter and honey contain some bioactive
components such as phenolic, flavonoids, hydrogen peroxide, etc, these
constitute their phyto components responsible for their antibacterial
activities. Several up to date research work and practical experience have
shown that using medicinal plants is better than allopathic drugs by being
safer besides have Synergistic effect (Ifra and Ahmed, 2009).
Upper
respiratory tract organisms have posed a lot of problems and discomfort on
patients. The most common symptoms being cough, catarrh, nausea, etc, give a
major concern to many nursing mothers and their children as it leads to
nocturnal cough coupled with sleepless night.
Over
the years, there have been reports on the production of more potent antibiotics
e.g. third and fourth generation of cephalosporin by pharmaceutical companies,
which are not readily available and expensive.
Problems
of various antibiotics include, but are not limited to, low efficacy and side
effect, hence the need to investigate into natural and potent antibiotics.
The
invasion of pathogenic organisms has been on the rise; as a result efforts are
being made to develop antimicrobial agents from natural sources for better
therapeutic effects (Gills, 1992).
1.2 Aims and Objectives.
1. To ascertain the
physicochemical and phytochemical components of honey and shea butter.
2. To isolate upper
respiratory tract organisms; Staphylococcus
aureus and Klebsiella pneumoniae from
sputum, nose swab, and sneezes of patients.
3. To determine
antibacterial potential of honey, shea butter, and their synergistic effects on
the bacterial isolates.
4. To determine the
Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) and Minimum Bactericidal Concentration
(MBC) of honey and shea butter.
5. To compare the
antibacterial effect of honey and shea butter and standard antibiotics.
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