CHAPTER
ONE: 5
INTRODUCTION.. 5
1.1 Background of the Study. 5
1.2 Statement of the Problem.. 7
1.3 Research Questions. 10
1.4 Objectives of the Study. 10
1.5 Significance of the Study. 11
1.6 Scope and Limitation of the
Study. 13
1.7 Definition of Terms. 14
CHAPTER
TWO: 16
LITERATURE
REVIEW... 16
2.1 Conceptual Framework. 16
2.1.1 Definition of PFAS. 16
2.1.2 Sources and Pathways of
PFAS. 18
2.1.3 Environmental Behavior of
PFAS. 20
2.2 Theoretical Framework. 23
2.2.1 Risk Assessment Theory. 23
2.2.2 Environmental Toxicology
Theory. 24
2.3 Empirical Review.. 26
2.3.1 Studies on PFAS in Water. 26
2.3.2 Studies on PFAS in
Sediments. 28
2.3.3 Health Risks Associated
with PFAS. 30
2.4 Summary of Literature Review.. 31
CHAPTER
THREE: 33
RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY.. 33
3.1 Research Design. 33
3.2 Study Area. 33
3.3 Population and Sampling
Technique. 34
3.4 Data Collection Methods. 34
3.4.1 Water Sampling. 34
3.4.2 Sediment Sampling. 34
3.4.3 Laboratory Analysis. 35
3.5 Data Analysis Techniques. 35
3.6 Ethical Considerations. 35
3.7 Validity and Reliability of
the Study. 36
CHAPTER
FOUR: 37
RESULTS
AND DISCUSSION.. 37
4.1 Introduction. 37
4.2 Descriptive Analysis. 37
4.2.1 Water Quality Parameters. 37
4.2.2 Sediment Quality
Parameters. 38
4.3 PFAS Concentrations. 40
4.3.1 PFAS in Water. 40
4.3.2 PFAS in Sediments. 42
4.5 Discussion of Findings. 44
4.5.1 Comparison with Standards. 44
4.5.2 Implications for Public
Health. 44
4.5.3 Implications for
Environmental Management 45
CHAPTER
FIVE: 46
CONCLUSION
AND RECOMMENDATIONS. 46
5.1 Conclusion. 46
5.2 Recommendations. 46
5.2.1 Policy Recommendations. 46
5.2.2 Recommendations for Future
Research. 47
5.3 Contribution to Knowledge. 47
5.4 Limitations of the Study. 47
References. 49
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study
Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are a large group
of human-made chemicals that have been used in various industrial applications
and consumer products since the 1940s. These substances are widely recognized
for their resistance to heat, water, and oil, leading to their use in products
such as non-stick cookware, water-repellent clothing, stain-resistant fabrics,
and firefighting foams (Giesy & Kannan, 2019). Recent studies have
highlighted the persistence, bioaccumulation, and potential toxicity of PFAS,
raising concerns about their impact on environmental and human health (Ritter,
2021).
The environmental persistence of PFAS is attributed to the
strength of the carbon-fluorine bonds, making them resistant to degradation.
Consequently, PFAS have been detected globally in various environmental media,
including water, soil, and air, as well as in wildlife and humans (Buck et al.,
2020). This widespread distribution has prompted researchers to investigate the
pathways through which PFAS enter and accumulate in the environment and biota
(Wang et al., 2022).
Rivers Niger and Benue, the two largest rivers in Nigeria,
are vital water bodies that support diverse ecosystems and provide water for
domestic, agricultural, and industrial uses. These rivers converge in Lokoja,
Kogi State, creating a significant confluence that impacts the surrounding
environment and communities (Onojake et al., 2022). Given the importance of
these rivers, understanding the levels and sources of contaminants, such as
PFAS, is crucial for environmental monitoring and public health protection.
Recent research has shown that PFAS contamination in rivers
can result from various sources, including industrial discharges, urban runoff,
and wastewater effluents. Studies in other regions have reported elevated PFAS
concentrations in river water and sediments, emphasizing the need for localized
assessments to inform risk management strategies (Zhao et al., 2020). In
Nigeria, limited data exists on the presence and levels of PFAS in major water
bodies, underscoring the need for comprehensive studies in this area
(Adetokunbo et al., 2023).
The potential health risks associated with PFAS exposure
have become a significant concern for public health authorities. PFAS have been
linked to various adverse health effects, including cancer, liver damage,
thyroid disease, and developmental issues in children (ATSDR, 2021). The
mechanisms through which PFAS exert their toxic effects are still being
studied, but it is believed that their ability to bind to proteins and
interfere with hormonal and metabolic processes plays a key role (Gallo et al.,
2021).
In Lokoja, the confluence of Rivers Niger and Benue creates
a unique environmental setting where PFAS from upstream activities may
accumulate and pose risks to local populations. This study aims to assess the
levels of PFAS in the water and sediments of these rivers, providing a basis
for evaluating the potential health risks to the residents of Lokoja (Ezeh et
al., 2023). Understanding the spatial distribution and concentration of PFAS is
essential for developing effective remediation and regulatory strategies.
Furthermore, the findings from this study will contribute to
the global database on PFAS contamination, helping to identify patterns and
trends that can inform international efforts to manage and mitigate PFAS
pollution (Scheringer et al., 2021). By comparing the results with established
safety guidelines and standards, the study will provide insights into the
adequacy of current regulations and the need for potential adjustments (USEPA,
2022).
In summary, the persistence, bioaccumulation, and potential
health risks of PFAS necessitate thorough investigation and monitoring,
particularly in regions with significant water bodies like Lokoja. This study
seeks to fill the knowledge gap on PFAS levels in Rivers Niger and Benue,
contributing to a better understanding of the environmental and health
implications of these substances (Adeniyi et al., 2023). Through comprehensive
analysis and risk assessment, the research aims to support the development of
informed policies and interventions to protect both the environment and public
health.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are recognized
for their environmental persistence and potential adverse health effects.
Despite global concerns, there is a significant knowledge gap regarding the
presence and impact of PFAS in Nigeria, particularly in the water and sediments
of major rivers such as Niger and Benue. The lack of comprehensive studies in
this region hinders effective environmental management and policy formulation
aimed at mitigating the risks associated with PFAS contamination (Adetokunbo et
al., 2023).
PFAS contamination in water bodies poses a direct threat to
aquatic ecosystems and human health. In regions where rivers serve as primary
sources of drinking water, the presence of PFAS can lead to bioaccumulation in
fish and other aquatic organisms, subsequently affecting the health of
communities that rely on these resources for their diet (Wang et al., 2022).
The detection of PFAS in Rivers Niger and Benue could indicate significant
exposure risks for local populations in Lokoja, Kogi State, necessitating
urgent attention and remediation efforts.
The industrial and urban development along Rivers Niger and
Benue contributes to the discharge of PFAS into these water bodies. Activities
such as manufacturing, use of firefighting foams, and waste disposal can
introduce these persistent chemicals into the environment (Zhao et al., 2020).
In Lokoja, where these rivers converge, the potential for compounded
contamination is high, posing a unique challenge for environmental monitoring
and public health interventions (Onojake et al., 2022).
Health risk assessments of PFAS exposure have linked these
chemicals to various diseases, including cancer, liver damage, and endocrine
disruption. The lack of local data on PFAS levels in Rivers Niger and Benue
limits the ability to assess and mitigate these health risks effectively
(ATSDR, 2021). Understanding the concentration and distribution of PFAS in
these rivers is critical for developing appropriate health risk assessments and
protective measures for the residents of Lokoja (Ezeh et al., 2023).
Existing studies on PFAS contamination predominantly focus
on developed countries, with limited research conducted in developing regions
like Nigeria. This disparity in research efforts creates a significant gap in
the global understanding of PFAS distribution and impact, particularly in areas
with different industrial and environmental contexts (Buck et al., 2020).
Addressing this gap through localized studies is essential for a comprehensive
global assessment of PFAS pollution and its risks (Scheringer et al., 2021).
The current regulatory framework in Nigeria does not
adequately address PFAS contamination, largely due to the lack of specific
guidelines and standards for these substances. This regulatory gap hinders
effective environmental monitoring and risk management, leaving local
populations vulnerable to the potential health effects of PFAS exposure
(Adetokunbo et al., 2023). Developing robust regulatory measures requires
detailed data on PFAS levels and sources, which this study aims to provide.
The convergence of Rivers Niger and Benue in Lokoja creates
a dynamic and complex hydrological environment that may influence the
distribution and behavior of PFAS. Understanding these dynamics is crucial for
accurate environmental assessments and effective management strategies (Onojake
et al., 2022). The study of PFAS in this confluence area will provide valuable
insights into the transport and fate of these substances in large river
systems.
Public awareness and understanding of PFAS risks in Nigeria
are limited, further complicating efforts to address contamination issues.
Educating local communities about the sources, pathways, and health effects of
PFAS is essential for fostering community engagement in environmental
protection initiatives (Ezeh et al., 2023). This study will contribute to
raising awareness and informing the public about the potential risks associated
with PFAS in their water sources.
There is an urgent need for comprehensive environmental
assessments of PFAS in Nigeria to support evidence-based policy and
decision-making. The findings from this study will provide critical data for
stakeholders, including government agencies, environmental organizations, and
public health officials, to develop and implement effective strategies for
managing PFAS contamination (Gallo et al., 2021). This research will serve as a
foundation for future studies and policy developments aimed at safeguarding
environmental and public health.
In summary, the persistent and potentially hazardous nature
of PFAS, coupled with the lack of local data and regulatory measures in
Nigeria, underscores the necessity of this study. By analyzing PFAS levels in
the water and sediments of Rivers Niger and Benue in Lokoja, this research will
address a critical gap in environmental monitoring and risk assessment,
contributing to the development of informed policies and protective measures
(Adeniyi et al., 2023).
1.3 Research Questions
1) What are the concentrations of per-
and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in the water and sediments of Rivers
Niger and Benue in Lokoja, Kogi State?
2) What are the potential sources of
PFAS contamination in the Rivers Niger and Benue?
3) What are the potential health risks
associated with PFAS exposure for the local population in Lokoja, considering
both water and sediment contamination?
4) How do the levels of PFAS in Rivers
Niger and Benue compare with established safety guidelines and standards for
environmental and human health?
1.4 Objectives of the Study
- To
determine the concentrations of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS)
in the water and sediments of Rivers Niger and Benue in Lokoja, Kogi
State.
- To
identify the potential sources of PFAS contamination in the Rivers Niger
and Benue.
- To
assess the potential health risks associated with PFAS exposure for the
local population in Lokoja, considering both water and sediment
contamination.
- To
compare the levels of PFAS in Rivers Niger and Benue with established
safety guidelines and standards for environmental and human health.
The study on the analysis and health risk assessment of per-
and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in the water and sediments of Rivers
Niger and Benue in Lokoja, Kogi State, holds significant importance for several
reasons. Firstly, it addresses a critical knowledge gap regarding the presence
and levels of PFAS in major Nigerian water bodies. This is essential as PFAS
have been recognized globally for their persistence, bioaccumulation, and
potential health risks (Ezeh et al., 2023). By providing localized data, the
study contributes to a better understanding of environmental contamination in
Nigeria, which has been underrepresented in global PFAS research (Adetokunbo et
al., 2023).
Secondly, the study’s findings will be crucial for
environmental monitoring and regulatory agencies in Nigeria. The data on PFAS
concentrations in Rivers Niger and Benue will help in formulating and
implementing effective policies and regulations to control and mitigate PFAS
pollution. Currently, Nigeria lacks specific guidelines and standards for PFAS,
and this study will provide the necessary evidence to support the development
of such regulations (Adeniyi et al., 2023).
Moreover, the study will benefit public health by assessing
the potential health risks associated with PFAS exposure for the local
population in Lokoja. Understanding the health implications of PFAS
contamination is vital for protecting communities that rely on these rivers for
drinking water, fishing, and other daily activities (ATSDR, 2021). The risk
assessment component of this research will inform public health interventions
and guide efforts to minimize exposure to these harmful substances.
The research also has significant implications for the
scientific community. It will add to the growing body of knowledge on PFAS,
particularly in developing countries where research is still limited. The
study’s methodology and findings can serve as a reference for future research
on PFAS contamination in other regions, promoting a more comprehensive
understanding of the global distribution and impact of these substances (Buck
et al., 2020).
Furthermore, the study will raise awareness among local
communities about the presence and risks of PFAS in their environment.
Increased awareness can lead to more community engagement in environmental
protection efforts and demand for better regulation and management of
contaminants (Gallo et al., 2021). Public education campaigns based on the
study’s findings can empower residents to advocate for cleaner water and safer
environmental practices.
The economic implications of this study are also noteworthy.
By identifying and addressing PFAS contamination, the research can help prevent
the potential economic costs associated with health care for diseases linked to
PFAS exposure and the degradation of natural resources (Scheringer et al.,
2021). Effective management of PFAS pollution can protect fisheries,
agriculture, and tourism, which are vital sectors for the local economy.
In addition, the study will support international efforts to
manage PFAS pollution. By contributing data from Nigeria, the research enhances
the global understanding of PFAS distribution and risks, which is essential for
developing international guidelines and collaborative strategies to address
this widespread issue (Zhao et al., 2020). The study’s findings will be
valuable for global databases and comparative analyses that inform worldwide
environmental policies.
Lastly, the research findings will be instrumental in
guiding future environmental research and interventions in Nigeria. They will
highlight the need for ongoing monitoring and studies on emerging contaminants,
fostering a proactive approach to environmental health and safety (Wang et al.,
2022). The study sets a precedent for comprehensive environmental assessments,
encouraging further research and action to protect the environment and public
health in Nigeria and beyond.
1.6 Scope and Limitation of the Study
The scope of this study encompasses the analysis and health
risk assessment of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in the water and
sediments of Rivers Niger and Benue in Lokoja, Kogi State. The research will
focus on measuring the concentrations of various PFAS compounds in these
rivers, identifying potential sources of contamination, assessing the
associated health risks for the local population, and comparing the detected
levels with established safety guidelines and standards. The study aims to
provide comprehensive data that can inform policy decisions and environmental
management practices regarding PFAS pollution.
However, this study has certain limitations. One of the
primary limitations is the geographical focus on Lokoja, which may not capture
the full extent of PFAS contamination in other regions along Rivers Niger and
Benue. The findings may, therefore, not be fully generalizable to other areas.
Additionally, the study is constrained by the availability and sensitivity of
analytical techniques for detecting low concentrations of PFAS in environmental
samples. Advanced and sensitive equipment is required to accurately measure
PFAS levels, which may pose logistical and financial challenges.
Another limitation is the potential variability in PFAS
concentrations due to seasonal changes and differing hydrological conditions.
Sampling during a specific period may not reflect the year-round PFAS levels in
the rivers. Furthermore, while the study will identify potential sources of
PFAS contamination, it may not be able to establish definitive causal
relationships due to the complex nature of environmental pollution. Despite
these limitations, the study aims to provide valuable insights into PFAS
contamination and its health risks, laying the groundwork for future research
and policy development in Nigeria.
1.7 Definition of Terms
Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS): A group of synthetic chemicals
characterized by their strong carbon-fluorine bonds, known for their
persistence in the environment and potential adverse health effects.
Water and Sediments: Refers to the liquid and solid
components of rivers, specifically Rivers Niger and Benue, which are the
primary focus of this study.
Health Risk Assessment: The process of estimating the
potential adverse health effects of exposure to hazardous substances, such as
PFAS, based on exposure levels and toxicological data.
Environmental Management: Refers to the practices and
policies aimed at monitoring, controlling, and mitigating environmental
pollution and its impacts.
Safety Guidelines and Standards: Established thresholds and criteria
set by regulatory bodies or organizations to protect human health and the
environment from harmful substances.
Lokoja, Kogi State: A specific geographical area in
Nigeria where Rivers Niger and Benue converge, chosen as the study location for
assessing PFAS contamination.
Concentration: The amount of a particular substance (e.g., PFAS) present
in a given volume or mass of water or sediment, usually expressed in parts per
million (ppm) or parts per billion (ppb).
Sources of Contamination: Refers to the various human
activities, such as industrial processes, wastewater discharges, and chemical
use, which introduce PFAS into the environment.
Analytical Techniques: Methods and instruments used to
detect and quantify PFAS compounds in environmental samples, such as water and
sediment samples collected from Rivers Niger and Benue.
Policy Development: The process of formulating rules,
regulations, and guidelines based on research findings and scientific evidence
to address environmental and public health concerns related to PFAS
contamination.
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