ABSTRACT
A 336-day feeding trial was conducted to evaluate the inclusion of dry cattle rumen content (DCRC) as component of pig feed on growth performance, digestibility and nutrients utilization, hematological indices, carcass and organ characteristics, optimal levels of inclusion and cost-benefit. In each experiment thirty Landrace × Large White hybrids pigs were used in completely randomized design. Rumen content was collected from abattoir and sun-dried; included at different levels: Experiment 1: 0%, 2.5%, 5%, 7.5% and 10%; Experiment 2: 0%, 5%, 10%, 15% and 20%; Experiment 3: 0%, 7.5%, 15%, 22.5% and 30%. Five dietary treatments tagged D1, D2, D3, D4 and D5 were formulated in each to be isocaloric (3020 kcal/kg ME) and isonitrogenous (18% CP) Performance data revealed that initial live weight (ILW) and final live weight (FLW) responded non-significantly (P>0.05). The daily feed intake (DFI) significantly (P<0.05) differ across the group; likewise food conversion ratio (FCR) and daily protein intake (DPI) responded non significantly (P>0.05) across the group. The protein efficiency ratio (PER) was significantly highest in D1 while D2 – D5 are significantly similar (P>0.05) across the group. The feeding of graded levels of DCRC significantly (P<0.05) affected live weight (LW), dry matter intake (DMi), dry matter as % of body weight (DM%BW), DM retention (DMr), organic matter intake (OMi) and organic matter retention (OMr) but fecal dry matter (FDM) and fecal organic matter (FOM) was similar across the group. Similarly the digestibility coefficient revealed that crude protein (CP), ether extract (EE) was significant (P<0.05) different while DM, OM and crude fiber (CF) was not affected by dietary treatment. Energy utilization indices varied significantly (P<0.05) across the group. Nitrogen balance varied significantly across the group. Dressed weight, ham, loin, rib cage region, trotter, tail, abdominal fat thickness and carcass length were not affected by dietary treatment; conversely, shoulder, head, back fat thickness and carcass length was significantly (P<0.05) affected by dietary treatment. The weight of liver, kidney, spleen, small intestine was significantly (P<0.05) affected by dietary treatment; while heart, lungs, empty stomach and large intestine was not affected. The haematology data revealed that red blood cell (RBC), white blood cell (WBC), mean corpuscular volume (MCV) and mean corpuscular haemoglobin (MCH) significantly (P<0.05) differ across the treatment group while pack cell volume (PCV), haemoglobin (Hb) and mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration (MCHC) was unaffected by dietary treatment. Feed cost data revealed that total feed intake (TFI), total feed cost (TFC) and cost per kg weight gain (C/kg WG) differ significantly (P<0.05) across the group while total weight gain (TWG) was unaffected. In conclusion, up to 30% in experiment 3 of DCRC can be incorporated without any adverse effect. DCRC being a component of pig feed will reduce supplemental inorganic phosphorus, lowered feed cost, lowered the amount of phosphorus excreted in the manure and reduce environmental pollution. DCRC can be used as feed additives in terms of enzymes, probiotics, prebiotics, dietary amino acids, toxin binders, minerals, vitamins and bypass protein. DCRC is not a waste but promising feedstuff in pig feed.
TABLE
OF CONTENTS
Title
Page i
Certification ii
Declaration iii
Dedication iv
Acknowledgement v
Table
of Contents vi
List
of Tables xi
List
of Figures xiii
List
of Plates xiv
Lists
of Appendices xvi
Acronyms xvii
Abstract xix
CHAPTER 1:
INTRODUCTION
1.1
Background Information 1
1.2
Statement of the Problem 2
1.3
Objective of the Study 3
1.4
Justification 3
CHAPTER 2:
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Nutrient Requirements of Weaned, Growing
and Finishing Pigs 5
2.1.1 Energy for maintenance & growth 5
2.1.2 Energy for developing boars and gilts 6
2.1.3 Lipid 6
2.1.4 Energy and protein needs of growing pigs 7
2.1.4.1Losses
occurring at maintenance 7
2.1.4.2 Protein retention from 20 to 120 kg live weight 8
2.1.4.3 Protein - energy interaction 10
2.2 Energy Utilization by Pigs 11
2.2.1 Energy sources in sugars and starch 11
2.2.2 Non starch polysaccharides 11
2.2.3 Lipids 12
2.2.4 Growing-finishing pigs 14
2.3 Metabolizable Energy Utilization 15
2.3.1 Energy utilization of weanling pigs raised
under pen conditions 18
2.3.2 Energy efficiency and nitrogen utilization 19
2.4 Protein Metabolism 21
2.4.1 Metabolic fate of amino acids 24
2.4.2 Protein synthesis and degradation 24
2.4.3 Non-essential amino acid metabolism 24
2.4.4 Essential amino acid metabolism 25
2.4.5 Essential amino acid oxidation 27
2.4.6 Role of nutrition 28
2.4.6.1
Enteral and parenteral 28
2.4.6.2 Nutrient composition 29
2.5 Energy Classification 30
2.6 Utilization of Dietary Fibre 32
2.6.1 Physiological aspects of dietary fiber 34
2.6.2 Interaction between dietary fiber and
minerals 36
2.6.3 Microbiota in the GIT of pigs 36
2.6.4 Adaptation of bacteria community to dietary
fiber 37
2.6.5 Bacteria and phosphorus requirements 39
2.7 Cattle Rumen Content 40
2.7.1 Digestion of energy feeds 41
2.7.2 Protein and non protein nitrogen utilization 43
2.7.3 Vitamin synthesis 44
2.7.4 Fat digestion 44
2.7.5 End products of rumen fermentation 44
2.7.6 Rumen micro-organisms 45
2.8 Alternative Feed Ingredients 49
2.8.1 Field peas 50
2.8.2 Energy and nutrient concentration and
digestibility 52
2.9 Antinutritional Factors in Plants 53
CHAPTER 3:
MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1 Location 56
3.2 Processing of Rumen Content 56
3.3 Experiment 1: Inclusion of dry cattle
rumen content (0-10%) in weaned
pig diet 58
3.3.1 Experimental pigs 58
3.3.2 Experimental diet 60
3.3.3 Housing and management of pigs 62
3.3.4 Experimental design and data collection 67
3.3.4.1 Growth performance 67
3.3.4.2 Cost-benefit 73
3.3.5 Digestibility and nutrient utilization 73
3.3.5.1 Experimental pigs and management 73
3.3.5.1 Diet and feeding 77
3.3.5.1 Experimental design and data collection 78
3.3.5.2 Chemical and data analyses 78
3.3.5.2 Mineral determination 82
3.3.5.3 Determination of antinutrients / phytochemicals 82
3.3.6 Blood collection / haematology indices 83
3.3.7 Carcass and organ evaluation 86
3.3.7.1 Statistical analysis 93
3.4 Experiment 2: Inclusion of dry cattle
rumen content (0-20%) in
weaned pig diet 93
3.5 Experiment 3: Inclusion of dry cattle
rumen content (0-30%) in
weaned pig diet 95
CHAPTER 4: RESULT
AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Chemical Composition of Dry Cattle Rumen
Content 97
4.1.1 Mineral components of dry cattle rumen
content 68
4.1.2 Antinutritional / phytochemical constituents
of DCRC 71
4.1.3 Chemical composition of experimental diets 72
4.2 Experiment
1: (0-10%) 102
4.2.1 Growth performance 102
4.2.2 Digestibility and nutrient utilization 104
4.2.3 Energy utilization 1078
4.2.4 Nitrogen balance 110
4.2.5 Haematology indices 112
4.2.6 Carcass quality and organ characteristics 114
4.2.7 Economics of production 117
4.3 Experiment 2: (0-20%) 118
4.3.1 Growth performance 118
4.3.2 Digestibility and nutrient utilization 120
4.3.3 Energy utilization 124
4.3.4 Nitrogen balance 126
4.3.5 Haematology indices 129
4.3.6 Carcass quality and organ characteristics 133
4.3.7 Economics of production 136
4.4 Experiment 3: (0-30%) 137
4.4.1 Growth performance 137
4.4.2 Haematology indices 139
4.4.3 Carcass and organ characteristics 141
4.4.4 Economics of production 144
CHAPTER 5:
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 146
References 147
Appendices
LIST
OF TABLES
2.1:
Amino acid composition of protein lost… 9
2.2: Amino acid composition of protein required
for... 10
2.3: Characterization of fiber components… 33
2.4: Fermentative properties of ruminal bacteria 47
3.1: Composition of experimental diet (0-10%) 62
3.2: Composition of experimental diet (0-20%) 94
3.3: Composition of experimental diet (0-30%) 96
4.1: Chemical and energy composition of DCRC 98
4.2: Mineral constituents of DCRC 99
4.3: Antinutritional / phytochemical constituents
of DCRC 100
4.4: Effect of DCRC on growth performance 104
4.5:
Effect of DCRC on nutrient utilization and digestibility 107
4.6: Energy utilization of pigs fed
(0-10%) DCRC 110
4.7: Nitrogen balance of pigs fed (0-10%)
DCRC 112
4.8: Haematology indices of pigs fed
(0-10%) DCRC 114
4.9: Carcass quality and organ
characteristics of pigs fed (0-10%) DCRC 116
4.10:
The cost-benefit of feeding diets of (0-10) DCRC 118
4.11: Performance of growingpigs fed diets
of (0-20%) DCRC 120
4.12: Nutrient utilization and
digestibility of pigs fed (0-20%) DCRC 123
4.13: Energy utilization of pigs fed (0-20%)
DCRC 126
4.14: Effect of (0-20%) DCRC on nitrogen
digestibility of growing pigs 128
4.15: Hematological parameters of growing
pigs fed (0-20%) DCRC 129
4.16: Carcass quality and organ
characteristics of pigs fed (0-20%) DCRC 135
4.17: Cost-benefit of pigs fed (0-20%)
DCRC 137
4.18: Performance of growing pigs fed
(0-30%) DCRC 139
4.19: Hematological parameters of pigs fed
(0-30%) DCRC 141
4.20: Carcass quality and organ
characteristics of pigs fed (0-30%) DCRC 143
4.21: Cost-benefit of pigs fed (0-30%)
DCRC 145
LISTS OF FIGURES
2.1: Protein
metabolism 21
2.2: Model
of mucosal glutamate… 23
2.3: Microbial
digestion of carbohydrate in the rumen 41
2.4: Factors
affecting bacteria balance in the rumen 48
2.5: Classification of endogenous factors in
plant feedstuffs 54
LIST OF PLATES
1: Drying
of dry cattle rumen content 57
2: Drying and Storing in Bags of dry cattle rumen content 57
3:
Purchase of weaner pigs 1 58
4: Purchased
Weaner pigs II 59
5: Purchased
of Weaner pigs III 59
6: Carry
of Raw materials: Maize offals 61
7: Purchase
of raw materials 61
8: Palm
kernel meal 64
9: Soya
bean meal 64
10: Crushing of maize in the market 65
11: Feed formulation 1 65
12: Feed formulation II 66
13: Feed formulation III 66
14: Before cleaning the pen 68
15: Daily cleaning of pen 1 68
16: Daily cleaning of pen II 69
17: Daily management practices III 69
18: Feeding the pigs twice daily 70
19: Weekly weighing of pig
I 70
20: Weekly
weighing of weaned pig II 71
21: Weekly weighing of weaned pig
III 71
22: Growing pig I 72
23: Growing pig II 72
24: Wooden cages used for digestibility study 74
25: Pigs inside the wooden cages 74
26: Daily cleaning of wooden cages
I 75
27: Daily cleaning of Aluminum sheet in the wooden cages II 75
28: Daily collection of urine for one week 76
29: Proximate analysis: Ash
I 80
30: Fibre Determination 80
31: Nitrogen Determination 81
32: Crude Fibre Determination II 81
33: Collection of Blood 1 84
34: Tying pig with rope to collect blood II 84
35: Haematology
Analyses 85
36:
Hematology Analyses 85
37: Determination of live weight before slaughter 87
38: Slaughtering of pig I 87
39:
Pouring hot water before scrapping
of hairs I 88
40:
Pouring hot water before scrapping
of hairs II 88
41: Scraping of pigs 89
42: Slaughtering of pig II 89
43:
Determination of Carcass weight 90
44:
Determination of Carcass length 90
45: Measurement of Carcass length 91
46: Carcass parts 91
47: Measurement and selling of Carcass parts 92
LISTS OF APPENDICES
1: Total utilization of dry cattle rumen
content
2: Cost analyses of feed ingredients
3: Cost analyses of feed ingredients /
formulated feed for experiments (1-111)
4: Chemical composition of diet (1)
5: Chemical composition of diet (2)
6: Chemical composition of diet (3)
7: Feed intake by pigs (1)
8: Feed intake by pigs (2)
9: Volume of urine (ml) voided by pigs (1)
10: Volume of urine (ml) voided by pigs (2)
11: Dry faeces collection (oven-dried) (1)
13: Wet faeces collection from pigs (2)
14: Dry faeces collection (oven-dried) (2)
12: Energy utilization by pigs (1 & 2)
ACRONYMS
1: Experiment 1
11: Experiment 2
morn: Morning
aft: Afternoon
rem: Remember
int: Intake
WM = White maize
SBM = Soya bean
meal
WO = Wheat offal
PO = Palm oil
BDG = Brewery
dried grain
PKC = Palm kernel
cake
MO = Maize offal
LFM = Local fish
meal
BM = Bone meal
OS = Oyster shell
MVP = Mineral
vitamin premix
DCRC = Dry cattle
rumen content
TFC = Total feed
cost
trt = Treatment
expt. = Experiment
comp = Composition
qty = Quantity
r = Replicate
Σ = summation
GE = gross energy
FGE = fecal GE
DE = digestible
energy
ME = metabolizable
energy
A = Appendix
CHAPTER
1
INTRODUCTION
1.1
BACKGROUND
INFORMATION
The
increase in the price of animal feeds due in part to scarcity and
non-availability of raw materials for feed has hindered production and
expansion of the poultry industry. The huge increment in feed cost is due to
increased price of maize, guinea corn, groundnut cake, soybean product and fish
meal. This shortage have caused most feed mills to be idle or working below
installed capacity, which have resulted to exorbitant prices in animal products
(Adesehinwa, 2008).
Adesehinwa
(2008) posited other factors like uncontrolled scarcity of basal feed
ingredients (e.g. cereal grains), growing scarcity of oil seed cake which the
nation used to produce and export in greater quantities, adulteration of feed
ingredients (e.g. fish meal and groundnut cake which suppliers now blend with
brown sand and saw dust), lack of quality control or inefficiency and lack of
government incentives to feed manufacturers.
Adesehinwa
(2008) asserted that in spite of shortage of raw materials for animal feed
production, attention is on scarcity of grains (basal energy feed) and protein
supplements that constitute 70 – 80% of finished feed. In addition, the author
noted that the rising need for maize for industrial use as livestock feeds,
beer production, baby foods, local consumption and stable food suggests that
there is the need to look for substitute to maize; hence such substitutes must
be available at little or no cost. This means shifting to abattoir waste to
which there is no competition by other secondary and industrial users.
Pigs
are known for high reproduction rate, excellent efficiency of nutrient
transformation into high-quality animal protein as reported by Szebiotko (1985).
Szebiotko (1985) argued that numerous factors like breed, genetic selection,
age, management conditions, balance diet, quality and quantity of protein and
energy affect the quantity of protein and energy utilized by swine to achieved
1 kg weight gain. Ojewola (2017) stated that “waste means materials that is not
or cannot be used; no longer of use; useless; thrown away because it’s not
wanted; unwanted after a manufacturing process etc.” Szebiotko (1985) opined
that animal by-products that are obtained from slaughter houses of larger
animal and poultry include bone offals, blood, bones, intestine, poultry heads
and feet, fat, feathers, bowels, horns, hooves, animal hairs, stomach,
intestine and rumen content.
Anonymous (1991)
assessed that rumen is the dominant feature of digestive tract of cattle which
maintains a medium that supports various populations of microorganisms. These organisms
ferment feed materials to produce volatile fatty acids (VFAs), methane, carbon
dioxide and the process provide feed (substrate) and ATP (energy) for the
growth of micro-organisms. The article explained that the main agents that
break down fibre, sugars, starches and proteins in the rumen are all anaerobic;
these include bacteria, protozoa and fungi.
1.2` Statement of problem
There is scarce
scientific information on the feeding of dry cattle rumen content (DCRC) to
pigs. Rumen content is one of the major wastes of the abattoir and its disposal
is becoming a major concern. Ayoade et
al. (2000) opined that the disposal of animal wastes is a costly, highly
demanding chore, generate offensive odor to create environmental pollution.
Pig production is
important in the humid tropics of Nigeria. Unfortunately, increased production
is hampered inter alia by high cost
of feedstuff, e.g. maize, soybean meal, groundnut cake and fish meal, which are
also used by humans. In order to encourage pig production, there is need to
source alternative feedstuff for which there is no competition with human and
which are relatively cheap for pig feed. Dried cattle rumen content (DCRC) is a
by-product of the slaughter houses. There
is the need to investigate the performance of pigs fed diet containing DCRC,
including its digestibility and nutrient utilization, hematological indices,
carcass and organ characteristics and the cost-benefit analysis of feeding
dried cattle rumen content (DCRC) to pigs.
The replacement
and inclusion level of the rumen content as component of pig feed was studied in
this research.
1.3 Objectives of the study
This
study was aimed at the evaluating dry cattle rumen content as feedstuff in pig diets.
The specific objectives were to determine the:
1. Growth
performance
2. Digestibility
and nutrients utilization
3. Hematological
indices
4. Carcass
and organ characteristics and
5. Optimal
levels of inclusion and cost-benefit of feed.
1.4 Justification
Research on the
utilization of dry cattle rumen content (DCRC) in animal feed has increased in
the past years, especially for poultry, rabbit and goat with little attention
paid to pigs. Okpanachi et al. (2010)
stated that animal products generate 15 to 20% of protein intake and these
constitute the essential amino acids that are biologically balanced and easily
absorbed to attain nutritional requirement of man than plant protein. Rumen
content constitute digested feed at different stages of fermentation, saliva
(rumen liquor), microbes and metabolic products (proteins, peptides, amino
acids, lipids, vitamins and volatile fatty acids) (Dairo et al., 2005; Mohammed et
al., 2005). Ayoade et al. (2000)
opined that rumen content are included in ruminant and non-ruminant diets,
hence recycling of rumen content in pig diet will generate expensive protein,
energy and essential vitamin B, reduction in odor and environmental pollution
in the nation abattoir. Anigbogu (2000) argued that dried cattle rumen content is
expected to replace some non-convectional feedstuffs and will reduce the cost
of feeding farm animals. The actual value of these wastes to pigs can only be
determined based on the performance from pigs. This will in turn provide data
and information on nutrient availability and utilization, which will
consequently reduce wastage and cost of production.
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