ABSTRACT
Probiotics like S. cerevisiae and micronutrients are intestinal modulator immune booster and growth enhancer. Methionine is lacking in most plant ingredients and availability improves growth. Consequently, six experimental diets varying in inclusion of S. cerevisiae and methionine were produced using mixture methodology principle. F7 was the commercial diet. The inclusion ratio of S. cerevisiae: methionine were as follows Feed 1(F1) 25:0, Feed 2(F2), 5:25, Feed 3(F3), 10:15, Feed 4(F4), 15:10, Feed 5(5), 25:5, and Feed 6(6), 0:25. Diets were made to be corresponding in compositions as follows: F1 to F6, F2 to F5 and F3 to F4. The diets were fed to hybrid of African catfish (Clarias gariepinus) (Female) X Heterobranchus longifilis (Male). There are tanks of 20 liters capacities per treatment feed. The hybrids were stocked at 20 fish per aquaria of dimension length weight and height. The fish were feed for a period of 86 days. The best SGR was produced by hybrid fed with feed 5, 6.00±0.42% day-1. There was however no significant difference (P>0.05) between the specific growth rate (SGR) of F5 and F1 (P>0.05). Nevertheless the SGR of hybrid fed with F1 was significantly different (P<0.05) that of hybrid fed with corresponding diet F6 (P<0.05). The SGR of hybrid fed with F2 was 3.50±0.37% day-1 while the specific growth rate of the corresponding diet F5 was 6.00±0.42% day-1 the catfish fed with F3 had SGR of 5.44±0.33% day-1 while those fed with the corresponding diet feed 4 had SGR of 5.70±0.03% day-1. The food conversion ratio (FCR) of the catfish was best and similar for hybrid fed with feed F4 and F5 (P>0.05). There high weight gain for catfish fed with F5 followed by those fed with F1. Based on results substitution of S.cerevisiae with methionine was very beneficial in enhancing growth and survival of hybrid African catfish. Moreover, the substitution enhanced fast growth of fish at fishmeal inclusion as low as 20%.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Page i
Declaration ii
Certification ii
Dedication iv
Acknowledgements v
Table of Contents vi
List of Tables ix
Abstract x
CHAPTER
1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the Study 1
1.2 Statement of Problems 7
1.3 Objective of the Study 7
1.4 Justification 7
1.5 Significant of the Study 8
CHAPTER
2: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1 Probiotics 9
2.1 Corn Meal 11
2.2 Soybeans 11
2.3 African Catfish 12
2.4 Nutrient Requirement of Fish 13
2.5 Carbohydrates Requirement of Fish 14
2.6 Lipid and Fatty Acids Requirement of
Fish. 14
2.7 Protein and Amino Acids Requirement of
Fish 15
2.8 Vitamins Requirement of Fish 15
2.8.1 Mineral requirement of fish 16
CHAPTER
3: MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1 Study Area 17
3.2 Experimental Fish and Source 17
3.3 Preparation of Container 17
3.4 Experimental Design 17
3.5 Preparation of Experimental Diet/Experimental
Feed 18
3.6 Statistical Analysis 19
3.7 Data Collection 19
CHAPTER
4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Results 21
4.2 Discussion 24
CHAPTER
5: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Conclusion 32
5.2 Recommendations 32
REFERENCES 33
APPENDICES 42
LIST OF TABLES
1.1: Composition of Experimental Diet VARYING IN Composition of
Saccharomyces cerevisiae and methione used in feeding fingerlings
African
catfish C. gariepinus for 2 months 19
2: Physicochemical
parameter of aquarium water used in rearing African
catfish C. gariepinus 20
3 Growth
and nutritional performances of African catfish fed with diets
varying
in methionine and Saccharomyces cerevisae for 90 days 23
LIST OF FIGURES
E
1: Effects of Feed 1
to Feed 6 on the specific growth rate of African Catfish feed
with
diet varying in composition of methionine and Saccharomyces cerevisiae 28
2 Effects of Feed 1
to Feed 6 on the food conversion ratio of African
Catfish feed
with diet varying
in composition of methionine and Saccharomyces
cerevisiae 29
3 Effects of
substitution levels of S. cerevisiae
on the feed conversion
ratio
of Hybrid African catfish (C.gariepinus
female x Heterobranchus
longifilis) male Hetroclarias 30
4 Effects of inclusions levels of
methionine on the feed conversion ratio of hybrid
African
Catfish C.gariepinus female x Heterobranchus longifilis Heteroclarias 31
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY
Aquaculture is currently the fastest
growing food production sector in the world, but diseases especially bacterial
infections remains primary constraints to its continued expansion (Abd Elvhman,
et al., 2009; El–Havoum, et al., 2006). Probiotic organisms are
essential for beneficial effect on particular organism health and host
nutrition’s for healthy gastroin3.03testinal function. Available study
indicates that the action of intestinal flora most times results in vital
benefits, including protection against pathogens and development of immune
system Verschueve et al., (2002)
opined that probiotics are defined as a live microbial adjunct which has a
beneficial effect on the host by modifying the host associated or ambient microbial
community, by improved use of the feed or enhancing the host response towards
diseases or by improving the quality of its ambient environment. Hardy (1995)
stated that aquaculture industry is faced with the challenges of insufficient supply
and high cost of quality fish feeds usually containing fish meal as a major
protein source, ranging from 30 – 50%. Beside the problem of high cost of fish
fees and quality seed, disease outbreak is a major challenge in fish farming in
Nigeria. Various studies showed that fared fish performance might be elevated
by using feed additive such as aromatic plant extracts including spices,
digestive enzymes and probiotic (El – Daker, et al., 2004). Functional additive, like probiotic is a new concept
on aquaculture (Li and Gatlin, 2004), where the additions of microorganisms on
diets indicated a positive effect on growth caused by the best use of carbohydrates,
protein and energy (Li and Gatlin, 2004). Probiotics were originally
incorporate into feed to reduce disease (Fuller, 1992). The uses of probiotic
have been studied most extensively in pigs (Dener, 2008). Probiotics, which are
micro – organisms or their product with health benefit to the host, are mostly used
in aquaculture as dietary, supplement and as a mean of disease control. Studies
have been focused on the promotion of fish by probiotic supplement as well as
physiological and immune responses of fish by probiotic supplements (Maozonk, et al., 2008). The Food and Agricultural
Organization (FAO) stated that there is potential for probiotic foods to
provide health benefits and that specific strain is safe for human use (Reid, et al., 2003). Catfish are usually known
by the ability to grow on a wide range of artificial and natural foods,
attainment of a larger size within short time, high yield potential, hardness
and tolerance to low dissolved oxygen and other aquatic conditions (Haylor,
1993). In Nigeria, catfish is widely cultivated because of high growth rate,
ability to withstand stress, diseases and ability to spawn easily (Sogbesan,
and Ugwumba, 2008). As the need to argument fish production from the wild
heightens due to increasing demand for fish, there is increased attention on
aquaculture (Owodeinde, et al.,
2010). According to El – Saidy and Gaber (2003), Siddhuraju and Becker (2003)
Wu, et al., (2004), over a decade
now, aquaculture has become the fastest growing food production sector in which
fish meal is a primary protein source in fish diets. In aquaculture, feeding of
culture fish is one of the most important factors that must be considered. Fish
like other animals have a requirement for essential nutrient in order to grow
properly. Nutrient requirement for fish encompasses proteins, lipid, and
carbohydrate, vitamins and minerals protein being a major constituents in fish
diet, presumes that a knowledge of its requirement for fish species was
essential for the formulation of a balanced diet Johnston (2004) reported that
fish meal has always been the predominant and most popular source of protein
for commercial fish feed production. However, the high cost incurred in the use
of fish meal as raw material has necessitated researcher into the use of plants
protein in feed formulation. Among the plant protein sources considered in
aquaculture diets, soybean meal is the most widely use ingredient. It was used
for the replacement of fish meal at various rations due to their high protein
content and relatively well – balanced amino acid profile (Koumi, et al., 2009). Fish meal remains the
ingredient of choice in fish feeds, because of its amino acid profile and
acceptability by fish. According to Akintunde (1985), the nutritional value of
a feed is determined by its digestibility and ease of assimilation while its
quality depends on the growth of the animal as a result of consumption of the
feed.
The aquaculture of cat fish is growing
steadily but farmers need to cut cost incurred on fixed; hence the availability
of cheap feed that meets the requirement of catfish would go a long way to
increasing profitability. According to (Hishamundu and Subasingle, 2003; Coche,
et al., 1994) the development and
expansion of aquaculture depend on the extent of the availability of good
quality and relative inexpensive feed ingredients the formulation of compounded
feed.
Brewer’s yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) has been identified as an ingredient with
several positive factors (Paryad and Mahmoudi, 2008) Saccharomyces cerevisiae contains about 45% protein, 1% lipid and
27% of crude fibre (Raven and Walk, 1980). It has an excellence amino acid
profile but its shortcoming lies in the deficiency of sulphur containing amino
acids such as methionine and cystine with a high content of lysine (Huige, 2006).
Yeast has been used extensively in poultry and other animals as growth
promotion and also additive to enhance fibre utilization. The fermentation of
feed dough by yeast has been utilized alongside local binders to produce local
field having located water stability (Solomon et al., 2011). Hybrid Clarias
gariepinus have been reported to utilize diets with 2% levels of dried
brewers yeast effectively with the determination of optimal levels beyond 2%
inclusion being open for further investigation (Essa et al., 2011). However, substitution to soybean meal with bioactive
yeast in the diet of the African catfish at 50% level has been reported without
adverse effects (Ezenwaji et al.,
2012). The current level of inclusion dried brewed yeast at 2% irrespective 4
soybean meal in the diet needs to be improved upon as suggested (Essa et al., 2011).
The use of probiotics in aquaculture has
been in various forms like application in culture water. (Hagiwara et al. 1994; Olafsen, 2001; Vine et al., 2006) to inclusion in feeds.
Suzer et al., (2008); Oliva – Teles and
Goncalves, (2001); Li, (2005); Ringo et
al., (2010) and therapeutic applications. Jorqensen et al., (1993); Irianto and Austin, 2002; Aly et al., 2008). Beneficial effects of probiotics have been
attributed to numerous factors like modulation of the intestinal microbiota and
immune system, enhanced growth survival and development, nutrition and disease resistance
(Li, 2005). Saccharomyces cerevisiae are
probiotic that modulate gastrointestinal tract, leading to improved nutritional
performance and immunity in fishes. (Adolel – Tawwab et al., 2008). The incorporation of yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae in
the diet of Nile tilapia produced better growth (Li, and Gatlin, 2004).
Similarly, improved growth performances have been noted when Saccharomyces cerevisiae was used in
diets of sea bass (Oliven – Teles and Goncalves, 2001), hybrid striped (Li and
Gatlin, 2004) and Japanese’s flounder Taoa et al. 2006). The beneficial effect
of yeast could be associated with t’s B-glucans mannan oligosaccharides and
protein (Li and Gatlin 2005; Li and
Gatlin, 2004; Taoka et al., 2006; Li and
Gatlin, 2003). Yeast naturally occurs in the gastrointestinal tract of healthy
fish and constitutes an important part of the gut microbota (Gatesoupe 2007).
Yeast is able to stand pelletizing and retains its quality after pelletizing.
It has been observed that yeast supplemented diets had effects of stimulating
growth, feed efficiency blood biochemistry, survival rate and non – specific
immune responses in olive flounder (Paralichthys
olivaceus) challenged with Uronema
maximum infection (Harikrishnan et al., 2011).
The use of brewer’s yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) at probiotic
level (up to 2%) has proven to have a positive effect on the performance and
welfare in several fish species such as African catfish Clarias gariepinus (Essa, et
al., 2011). And hybrid striped bass Morone
chrysops x morone saxatilis (Li
and Gatlin, 2003). However, in studies were brewer’s yeast were tested as
protein source (i.e.) when high level are required, the results are not
entirely clear. Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus
mykiss) and tilapia (Oreochomis niloticus)
fed with diets containing moderate to high yeast levels were reported to have
reduced feed intake and growth, reduced liver glycogen and increased total liver lipids (Dela, et al., 1985; Rumsey, et al.,
1991; Rumsey, et al., 1992). Conversely,
the inclusion of 30 – 50% brewer’s yeast in the diet improved feed efficiency
of European Sea bass (Oliva and Goncalves, 2001).
Probiotics can be
described as cultured products or liver microbial feed supplement, which
affects its host positively by improving intestinal balance and health status
of the host (Fooks, et al., 1999). Probiotics can further be described as pure
cultures of one or more microbes included in feed (Essa, et al., 2011).
Plants proteins are cheap and ready
available but they have some limitations that make them unsuitable for direct
incorporation into animal breeds (Aletor and Fetuga, 1984). Such factors
include the presence of anti-nutritional factors that result in poor
digestibility and low levels of Sulphur, amino acids, methionine and cystine.
These limitations could be successfully addressed by different method such as
heat treatment like toasting, autoclaving and cooking, which destroys the heat
– labile auto – nutritional factor and improves digestibility or supplementing
with methionine or cystine (Ologhobo, et
al., 1992). Methionine is an indispensible amino acid required by
terrestrial vertebrate, as well as several fish species for normal growth and
metabolic functions (Murth and Varghese 1998). Plant proteins generally have
unbalanced proportions of the essential amino acids.
Probiotics can control pathogens by
variety of mechanisms and have, therefore become increasingly important as
alternatives to antibiotic treatment (Verschuere et al., 2000). Fuller (1989) described probiotics as like microbial
food supplements that can beneficially affect the host animal by improving
intestinal microbial balance. Lactobacillus
acidophilus, L. bulgaricus, L. plantaxium, Streptococcus Latis and Saccharomyces
cerevisiae are some of the common probiotic strains used as in aquaculture
(FAO, 2004). Probiotics are sometime expected to have direct growth promoting
effects on fish either by directly involving nutrients uptake or by providing
nutrients or vitamins (Ringo and Gatesoupe, 1999) using yeast as probiotic was
studied by (Andlid, et al., 1995); Li
and Gatlin (2005); Czerucka, et al., (2007); Pooramini et al., (2009), reported positive
effects of yeast (Saccharomyces
cerevisiae) as a probiotic on growth parameters, survival careass quality
in fry rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss).
1.2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEMS
The use of antibiotics in aquaculture has
been banned in some country due to rejection of export consignment of marine
products. High cost of fishmeal, has necessitated alternative use of plant
proteins. However, plant proteins lack essential amino acids eg methionine and
contain anti-nutritional factors. The high cost of fishmeal and
anti-nutritional factor of plant proteins possessed serious problem to the feed
industry. Fish health and immunity to disease is compromised by non-utilization
of nutrient. There is need to avoid the use of antibiotics and improved growth
using micronutrients like probiotics and prebiotics. There is also need to remove
anti-nutritional factors and increase usability of plant proteins by reducing
fishmeal.
1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
1.
To
determine growth and nutritional effect of using low inclusion level of
fishmeal 20% while substituting the micronutrients methionine and S. cerevisiae.
2.
To
determine the inclusion and substitution level of S. cerevisiae and methionine that would give optimal growth.
3.
To
determine effects of argumenting essential amino acid methionine on African
catfish.
1.4 JUSTIFICATION
Since fishmeal is costly, it is reasonable
to reduce the inclusion level to increase profitability. However, inclusion of plant
proteins can reduce cost but portends the problems of anti-nutritional factor
which can also compromise fish health. Therefore, it is important to find a way of removing ANF,
increasing plant proteins, improve growth, health and reducing the fish meal
and yet not compromising fish health and welfare.
1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
This research would proffer new
information on the potential benefits of probiotic and methionine in aqua-feed.
This study would also provide a means of using low fishmeal content thereby
saving cost. It also prefers solution to problem of anti-nutritional factor and
manipulating the micronutrients. The research will beneficial in argumenting
the deficiency of essential amino acid like methionine in plant protein
ingredient.
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