ABSTRACT
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are a class of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) which are ubiquitously found in the environment and inadvertently in foods. The presence of these pollutants in the environment and in foods have been reported to cause severe health effects in humans. This study however, examined the levels of PAHs in fish sold in Ogbia Local Government area Bayelsa State. Standard analytical method were employed in the collection of the samples, and Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectroscopy (GC-MS) techniques were used in the analysis of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in grilled Fish (Salmon) samples. Analysis of Fish (Salmon) samples from Ogbia were revealed varying in concentration. However, brought about a significant reduction in the respective concentration of the different PAHs. The result of analysis of PAHs in grilled fish (Salmon) shows that PAHs the three locations signifies that PAHs in Ogbia Local Government Area are more active and cancerious and can lead to various long term and short term diseases such as liver and kidney falure and cancer. PAHs are present mainly due to the grilling process of preparing the fish. Thus, the reason why many high molecular weight PAHs are present in the result and also when comparing this laboratory result with the WHO permissible value, the values obtained in some of this location were significantly (p<0.05) higher when compared with the WHO permissible value. For example in Otuoke Acenaphthylene, Fluorene, Phenanthrene, Anthracen, Naphthalene were all higher when compared with the WHO standard
Keywords: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, Fish, Gas Chromatography Mass Spectroscopy, Carcinogenic.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Cover Page i
Title ii Dedication iii
Certification iv
Declaration v
Acknowledgments vi
Table of Contents vii
List of Figures x
List of Tables xi
Abstract xii
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Background of the study 1
1.2 Statement of problem 3
1.3 Aim and objectives of the study 3
1.4 Justification of the study 3
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW 5
2.1 Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) 5
2.2 Effect of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the environment 7
2.3 Fish (salmon) 8
2.4 Grilling/smoking 9
2.5 Physiochemical properties of PAHs 10
2.6 Sources of PAHs 12
2.7 Effect of PAHs on human health 13
2.7.1 Carcinogenicity 15
2.7.2 Teratogenicity 16
2.7.3 Genotoxicity 17
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS 18
3.1 Equipment/reagent 18
3.1.1 Chemicals and reagents 18
3.2 Methods 19
3.2.1 Sample collection/processing 19
3.2.1.1 Sample collection 19
3.2.1.2 Sample preparation 19
3.2.2 Analytical method 20
3.2.2.1 Determination of PAHs in fish 20
3.2.2.1.1 Sample extraction 20
3.2.2.1.2 Sample clean up 20
3.2.2.1.3 GC-MS analysis 21
CHAPTER FOUR
4.1 Result 23
CHAPTER FIVE
5.1 Discussion 25
5.2 Conclusion 26
5.3 Recommendations 26
REFERENCES 27
APPENDIX 34
LIST OF FIGURE
Figure 2.1: Source of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. 13
LIST OF TABLE
Table 2.1: Physiochemical properties of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. 12
Table 4.1 Showing the level of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in Emeyal, Imiringi, Otuoke and WHO Standard. 23
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND OF STUDY
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are ubiquitous anthropogenic pollutants that can be biologically amplified to high concentrations in food webs. Due to their lipophilicity, persistence, and high toxicity, these residues are readily accumulated in the tissues of nontarget living organisms where they may cause detrimental effects. PAHs are toxic, carcinogenic, and mutagenic to all organisms, including humans (Nacci et al., 2002).The main sources of these contaminants in the environment include forest fire, natural petroleum seeps, combustion of fossil fuels, coal burning, and use of oil for cooking and heating (Christensen et al., 2005; Moon, et al., 2006). Other sources include domestic and industrial waste waters and sewage. As a consequence, environmental contamination by PAHs has steadily increased in recent years (Van Metre et al., 2000).
PAHs are produced in incomplete combustion of organic matter such as wood, coal, or oil. As a general rule, the lower the temperature of the fire and the less oxygen is available, the more incomplete do these materials burn and the more PAHs are produced. A large portion of the PAHs enters the atmosphere through natural processes that cannot be controlled by humans, such as wood fires or volcano eruptions. Man-made emissions mainly come from combustion processes as well: from small combustion units, industrial processes, fireplaces, or tobacco smoke. In addition, this group of substances is a natural component of fossil raw materials, specifically coal and petroleum. The PAHs found in smoked fishery products represents the accumulation from both source pollution and the smoking process. (Visciano et al., 2008). Reported PAHs concentrations in smoked foods are highly variable because of the differences in the procedures used for smoking (Visciano et al., 2008). According to most reports, due to their ability to rapidly metabolize PAHs, fish generally contain very low PAHS concentrations, even when they come from heavily contaminated areas (Oost et al., 003). Nevertheless, some researchers found high PAHS concentrations in raw fish from contaminated waters (Visciano et al., 2008).
Human exposure to PAHs is particularly severe in e-waste sites (Frazzoli et al.,2010) and in crude oil and gas exploration in Africa (Orisakwe et al., 2010). Evidence exists on the relationship between environmental PAHS exposure and cancer (Shen et al, 2017). In addition to environmental exposure, the high health risks are exacerbated by dietary exppsure due to unsafe practices of food cookery by street food vendors such as continuous reuse of red oil for frying, cooking foods over open flames or allowing food to have direct contact with coal materials during roasting and smoking, roasting fish with tyres, exposing foods to fumes from exhaust pipes of motor vehicle's, and burning of waste close to places where street foods are sold. High PAHS level is found in foods after processes such as frying, smoking, grilling, and roasting (Farhadian et al., 2012).
The persistence of PAHs in the environment is due mainly to their low water solubility which rapidly leads to their association with sediment.
1.2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM
When grilled fish (salmon) are contaminated with PAHs emanating from heating, natural petroleum seeps, combustion of fossil fuels, smoking etc. The toxicants are eventually passed on humans who directly consume such polluted food chain and suffer the deterious effects of these toxicants. Hence high level of PAHs constitutes a serious risk to public health.
1.3 Aim and Objectives of the Study
1.3.1 Aim
The aim of this study is to determine the levels of PAHs in grilled fish (salmon) in three different localities of Ogbia Local Government Area Bayelsa State.
1.3.2 Objectives
The objective that was set for this study
To determine whether there is any significant difference in PAHs levels of grilled fish sold in these three localities (Emeyal, Imiringi and Otuoke).
Compare data with WHO Standard as a way of evaluating safety and toxicity margin.
1.4 Justification of Study
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons represent a wide spread class of environmental chemical pollutants and are ubiquitous contaminants with two or more fused rings in aquatic environments. Bioaccumulation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the human system has been found to be carcinogenic and other health risks gotten from immediate contaminated environment, food and drinking water and other sources.
Relatively little effort have been made to identify and quantitatively assess the level of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in grilled fish sold in 3 different localities of ogbia local government area Bayelsa state. Hence this study is designed to make contributions in evaluation to enable the quantification studies and it's associated health risk.
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