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ETHNOBOTANICAL AND PHARMACOGNOSTIC ANALYSIS OF SOME INDIGENOUS MEDICINAL PLANTS COMMONLY USED FOR CHILDREN’S AILMENTS IN SOUTH EASTERN NIGERIA

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ABSTRACT

 

The role of plants in the promotion of health care system in Nigeria in gradually increasing.  This research tries to document information on the plants and the methods of botanical preparations used in South-eastern Nigeria for the treatment of children’s ailments and also the pharmacological efficacy of some of the mostly mentioned plants. Structured questionnaires were administered to the herbal practitioners, nursing mothers and the adult dwellers to collect data on the names of plants used to treat the conditions, methods of preparation, duration of treatment, adverse effects (if any) and the method of administration of the extracted plant materials. A total of 135 plants belonging to 55 families were identified for the management of children’s health in the area. Common pediatric ailments which were said to be treated with herbal remedies by the respondents included malaria, fever, pneumonia, stomach ache, diarrhea, dysentery, measles, chicken pox/small pox, convulsion, jaundice, pile, ringworm, scabies, eczema, stubborn cough, scurvy, headaches, catarrh, wounds, boils, insect bites, food poison, cholera, and umbilical cord complications. Twenty-one (21) plants that were mostly mentioned were subjected to antimicrobial analysis against two human pathogens; Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus using in vitro methods of the disc diffusion and micro-broth dilution methods. Four plants viz; Mangifera indica, Gongronema latifolium, Chromolena odorata and Cnestis ferruginea were screened for anti-diarrheal activities using standard methods which included castor oil-induced diarrhea, gastrointestinal motility test and castor oil-induced enteropooling tests. In the antibacterial screening, Uvarea chamae (leaf), Nauclea latifolia (leaf), Azadirachta indica (leaf) exhibited highest activity against E. coli, followed by Emilia sonchifolia (leaf), Musa sapientum (leaf), Annona muricata (leaf), Alstonia bonnie (leaf), and Nauclea latifolia (root).While Musa sapientum (leaf), Nauclea latifolia (leaf), Emilia sonchifolia (leaf), Azadirachta indica (leaf), Ocimuim gratisimum (leaf), and Uvarea chamea (Root) showed highest activity against Staphylococcus aureus, followed by Uvarea chamea (leaf), Alstonia bonnei (leaf) and Bryophyllium pinnatum on disc difussion assay. In MIC assay, Azadirachta indica (bark), exhibited the highest antibacterial effect against E. coli with MIC value of 62.5µg/ml when compared with the standard drug erithromycin (5µg/ml), 62.5 µg/ml, U. chamea (leaf and root), and Mangifera indica (bark) showed activity against E. coli by having maximum lower concentrations of 125 µg/ml each and the leaf extract of N. latifolia and Sida acuta showed MIC value of 250 µg/ml, the rest of the extracts showed MIC values of 500 µg/ml - 100 0µg/ml above. In diarrhea assay, all the four plant extracts exhibited dose dependent effects on all the models with highest activity recorded in C. odrata which gave 66.1% protection from castor oil-induced diarrhea and 80.1% reduction in intra-luminal fluid accumulation. C. ferruginea gave 70.4% protection on gastrointestinal motility test, while M. indica and G. latifolium gave 61.1% and 61.5% which represented performance above 50%, indicating that all the four tested anti-diarrheal extracts hold potentials as anti-diarrheal agents.





TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title Page                                                                                                                    i

Declaration                                                                                                                 ii

Certification                                                                                                               iii

Dedication                                                                                                                  iv

Acknowledgements                                                                                                    v

Table of Contents                                                                                                       vii

List of Tables                                                                                                              x

List of Figures                                                                                                             xii

List of Plates                                                                                                               xiii

Abstract                                                                                                                      xv

 

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION                                                                     1

1.1           Background of the Study                                                                                1

1.2           Statement of Problem                                                                                          3

1.3           Justification of Study                                                                                      4

1.4           Aim and Objectives                                                                                        5

CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE                                     6

2.1       Historical Development of Ethno-medicine                                                  6

2.2       Plant Metabolites as Potential Therapeutic Agents                                        8

2.3       Mechanism of Actions of Plant Secondary Compounds                                9

2.4       Antimicrobials                                                                                                            10

2.4.1   Plants as source of antimicrobials                                                                  11

2.5       Importance of Antimicrobial Susceptibility Test                                           14

2.6       Diarrhea                                                                                                          14

2.6.1      Causes                                                                                                             15

2.6.2    Diagnosis of diarrhea                                                                                     15

2.6.3    Pharmaceutical anti-diarrheic agents isolated from medicinal plants              16

2.7       Staphilococcus aureus and Escherichia coli as Agents of Diarrhea                        18

2.7.1   Staphylococcus aureus                                                                                   18

2.7.2    Escherichia coli                                                                                              18

2.8       Botany of Plants Under Study                                                                                    19

2.8.1    Uvarea chamea                                                                                               19

2.8.2    Gongronema latifolium (Benth)                                                                     20

2.8.3    Chromolaena odorata                                                                                    21

2.8.4    Annona muricata                                                                                            22

2.8.5    Astonia boonei                                                                                                23

2.8.6    Musa sapientum                                                                                              23

2.8.7    Nauclea latifolia                                                                                             24

2.8.8    Euphobia hirta                                                                                                25

2.8.9    Pentaclethra macrophylla (Benth.)                                                                28

2.8.10 Bryophyllium pinnatum                                                                                  29

2.8.11 Alchornea laxiflora                                                                                        32

2.8.12 Cnestis ferruginea                                                                                          32

2.8.13 Ocimum gratisimum                                                                                       33

2.8.14 Costus afer                                                                                                      35

2.8.15 Mangifera indica                                                                                            36

2.8.16 Tetrapleura tetraptera                                                                                    37

2.8.17 Sida acuta                                                                                                       39

2.8.18 Azadirachta indica                                                                                         40

2.8.19 Psidium guajava                                                                                             41

2.8.20 Emilia sonchifolia                                                                                          42

CHAPTER 3: MATERIALS AND METHODS                                                    44

3.1       Ethno Botanical Survey                                                                                  44

3.1.1   Survey area                                                                                                     44

3.1.2   Collection of surveyed data                                                                            44

3.2       Antibacterial Analysis                                                                                    44

3.2.1    Study area                                                                                                       44

3.2.2   Collection and identification of plant samples                                               45

3.2.3   Preparation of plant samples                                                                          45

3.2.4    Bacteria strains                                                                                               45

3.2.5    Culture media                                                                                                 46

3.2.6    Sterility proofing of extracts                                                                          46

3.3       Disk Susceptibility Testing                                                                            46

3.4       Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC)                                                    47

3.5       Anti-Diarrheal Analysis                                                                                  48

3.6       Extract Preparation                                                                                         48

3.7       Animals                                                                                                          49

3.8       Acute Toxicity Testing                                                                                   49

3.9       Castor Oil–Induced Diarrhea                                                                         50

3.10     Gastrointestinal Motility Test                                                                         50

3.11     Castor Oil-Induced Enteropooling                                                                 51

3.12     Statistical Analysis                                                                                         52

 

CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION                                                      53

4.1       Results                                                                                                            53

4.1.1    Survey                                                                                                 53

4.1.2    Antibacterial assay                                                                                         71

4.1.3    Diarrhea                                                                                                          78

4.1.3.1 Acute toxicity                                                                                                 78

4.1.3.2 Effect of extracts on castor oil induced diarrhea                                            80

4.1.3.3 Effect of extracts on castor oil induced gastro-intestinal motility                        86

4.1.3.4 Effect of extracts on castor oil induced enteropooling                                   92

4.2.      Discussion                                                                                                       98

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION                             108

5.1                       Conclusion                                                                                                      108

5.2       Recommendations                                                                                          109

References

Appendices

 

 

 


 

LIST OF TABLES

Page

2.1:      Some affirmed plants with antimicrobial potentials against diverse

drug resistance strains                                                                                    13

2.2:      Pharmaceutical products derived from indigenous medicinal plants used

in the control of dysentery and diarrhea-like conditions                                17

4.1:      Demographic profile of respondents (450)                                                    55

4.2:      Plant families and number of species                                                             56

 4.3:     Plants used for the management of children’s diseases in south east             58

 4.4:     Ailments, recipes, method of preparation, mode of administration

and dosages                                                                                                     63

4. I.2:   Antibacterial assay                                                                                         73

 4.5:     Diameter zone of inhibition (mm) 2mg/ml                                                    75

 4.6:     Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) (2mg/ml), range 1000µ/ml

4.9µ/ml                                                                                                           76

 4.7:    LD50 of extract A, B, C and D                                                                        79

 4.8:     Effect of Mangifera indica on castor oil induced diarrhea in mice                        80

 4.9:     Effect of Chromolena odorata on castor oil induced diarrhea in mice    81

 4.10:   Effect of Gongronema latifolium on castor oil induced diarrhea in mice    82

 4.11:   Effect of Cnestis ferruginea on castor oil induced diarrhea in mice                        83

 4.12:   Effect of Mangifera indica on castor oil induced gastro-intestinal motility           86

 4.13:   Effect of Chromolena odorata on castor oil induced gastro-intestinal

motility                                                                                                           87

 4.14:   Effect of Gongronema latifolium on castor oil induced gastro-intestinal

motility                                                                                                           88

 4.15:   Effect of Cnestis ferrugenea on castor oil induced gastro-intestinal motility89

 4.16:   Effect of Mangifera indica on castor oil induced enteropooling                        92

 4.17:   Effect of Chromolena odorata on castor oil induced enteropooling                        93

 4.18:   Effect of Gongronema latifolium on castor oil induced enteropooling  94

 4.19:  Effect of Cnestis ferrugenea on castor oil induced enteropooling               95


 

 

 

 

LIST OF FIGURES

4.1:      Percentage occurrence of plants used for the treatment of

            children’s disease                                                                               57

 

 


 

 

 

 

LIST OF PLATES

Page

 

 4a:      Disc diffusion assay of N. latifolia (leaf), N. latifolia (root), E.

sonchifolia (leaf), A. indica (leaf), U. chamea (leaf) and A.

muricata (leaf) on E. coli                                                                               74

 

 4b:      Disc diffusion assay of B. pinnatum (leaf), J. curcus (leaf), A. boonie

(leaf), U. chamea (root), M. sapientum (leaf) and O. gratisimum (leaf) on

E. coli                                                                                                             74

 

 4c:      Disc diffusion assay of C. odorata (leaf), S. acuta (leaf), P. macrophyla

(leaf), M. indica (bark), T. tetraptera (pod) and P. guajava (laef) on

E. coli                                                                                                             74

 

 4d:      Disc diffusion assay of A. indica (stem bark), M. indica (leaf), C. afer

(leaf), A. laxiflora (leaf), V. amygdalina (leaf), and E. hirta (leaf) on

E. coli                                                                                                             74

 4.1a:   Disc diffusion assay of U. chamea (leaf), N. latifolia (root), N. latifolia

(leaf), E. sonchifolia (leaf), A. indica (leaf), and A. muricata (leaf) on

S. aureus                                                                                                         74

 

 4.1b:   Disc diffusion assay of A. indica (stem bark), A. indica (leaf),

C. afer (leaf), A. laxiflora (leaf), V. amydalina (leaf), and E. hirta

(leaf) on S. aureus.                                                                                          74

 

 4.1c:   Disc diffusion assay of C. odorata (leaf), S. acuta (lea), P. macrophyla

 (leaf), M. indica (bark), T. tetraptera (pod) and P. guajava (laef) on

S. aureus.                                                                                                        74

 

 4.1d:   Disc diffusion assay of U. chamea (root), O. gratisimum (leaf),

A.             boonie (leaf), M. sapintum (leaf), B. pinnatum (leaf), and J. curcus

(leaf) on S. aureus                                                                                           74

 

 4.2a:   Row A- T. tetraptera (pod), B – A. laxiflora (bark), C- M. indica (bark),

 D- S. acuta (leaf), E-A. indica (bark), F- U. chamea (root), G- U. chamea

(leaf), H- N.  latifolia (leaf).                                                                           77

 

 4.2b:   Row A- B. pinnatum (leaf); B- A. muricata (leaf), C- A. indica

(leaf), D- P. macrophylla (leaf), E- E. hirta (leaf), F- C. afer

(leaf), G- M. sapientum, H-  P. guajava.                                                        77

 

 4.2c:   Row A- A. boonei, B- C. odorata (leaf), D- E- Positive control

(Erythromycintab).                                                                                         77

 

 4.2d:   Row A- A. boonei, B – A. laxiflora (bark), C- M. indica (bark),

D- A. indica (bark), E- U. chamea (leaf), F-P.guajava,

G- A. indica (leaf), H- S. acuta (leaf).                                                            77

 

 4.2e:   Row A- M. sapientum (leaf), B- P. macrophylla (leaf), C-  E. hirta

(leaf), D- E.  sonchifolia (leaf), E- C. afer (leaf).                                           77

 

 4.2f:    Row A-N. latifolia (root), B- B. pinnatum (leaf), C- A. muricata

(leaf), D- N. latifolia (leaf), E- C. odorata, F- T. tetraptera

(pod), G-H, Erithromycin                                                                               77



 

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION


1.1    BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Indigenous medicinal plants form a crucial component of natural wealth of a country and several countries are very much dependent on the indigenous medicinal plants for their primary health care needs (Soladoye et al., 2010). Ethno-botany is the relationship between the people of a primitive society and plants. It accesses a region’s plants and their practical uses through the traditional knowledge of a primitive and aboriginal people (Cox and Balick, 1996). It studies the useful plants before a commercial exploration and eventful documentation. This indigenous knowledge passed down from one generation to the otherin different areas of the globe has contributed immensely to the development of different traditional system of medicine (Cox and Balick, 1996), as well as helped in exploring and discovering different medicinal plants to find the pharmacological basis for their uses in traditional medicine. In actuality, botanicals are the sources of medicine for many people of different ages in many countries of the world, where diseases are treated primarily with traditional medicines obtained from plants. Until recent times, plants contributed to the provision of crucial novel pharmacologically effective compounds with many active drugs being directly or indirectly derived from them.

Even with the prevailing preoccupancy of synthetic chemistry as a vehicle to discover and manufacture drugs, the contribution of plants to disease treatment and prevention is still enormous and can never be over emphasized. Interestingly, at the beginning of 21st century, 11% of the 252 drugs considered as fundamental and essential by WHO were exclusively of flowering plant origin (Ciddi, 2012). Using plants as drugs in the treatment of different diseases has been an ancient practice. The compounds derived from plants have extended past of medical use, improved, patient absorbency and approval with no or little side effects (Ciddi, 2012). It is fact and also interesting to note that plants used by native people in their traditional medicinal systems are chiefly the source of many important past and recent pharmaceuticals (WHO, 2002). To mention few instances of the influence of traditional medicines on the development of modern drugs and treatments, reports have it that Native American traditional medicine provides an equal approach in treating cardiovascular ailment which can complement modern medicine treatment (Nauman, 2007). Pharmacologically effective properties obtained in plants e.g. artesunate, homoharringtonine and cautharidin, are very potent and are now providing their potentials for use incancer treatment (Efferth et al., 2007). Search for recent and effective antibiotics especially against multiple drug resistant microorganisms are currently on the increase in plants (Coates and Yu, 2007).

Ethno-botanical studies are of significant value to explore contemporary and efficient drugs from indigenous medicinal plant resources. Currently certain percent of herbal drugs in convectional medicines are from plant species and much synthetic drugs are generated by using chemical substances extracted from plants (WHO, 2002). The uses of plant species in traditional medicines provide a real and alternative replacement of synthetic drugs in health care services for rural communities of the developing nations (Hayta et al., 2014). Approximately 90% of the orthodox medicines used in primary healthcare are derived from different species of herbs (Farnsworth et al., 2001).

Greater reduction in the efficacy of multiple varieties of antibiotic and antimicrobial agents produced has been reported and this is greatly due to the emergency of pathogens that counter the activities of these drugs (Levy et al., 2004). It has been noticed that plant extracts represent a continuous attempt to find new compounds that fight against pathogens (Dixit et al., 2013). Plant drugs still remain the primary source of pharmaceutical agents used in orthodox medicine (Khaing, 2011). Presently, the study of plants with respect to the chemical components of their bioactive compounds, their uses for human health as functional foods and/or nutriceutical, and their effects on several diseases is on the increase (Bernal et al., 2011). Utilization of medicinal plants in developing countries as conventional condition for the management of good health has been widely acknowledged (UNESCO, 1996). Also, the increasing dependency on using medicinal plants in the industrialized organization was tracked to the extraction and development of multiple drugs and chemotherapeutics from them as well as from traditionally used local remedies (UNESCO, 1998). Furthermore, herbal medicines have been common in the management of smaller diseases and also due to the higher costs of individual health maintenance. Survey carried out by WHO on Roll back malaria program in1998, indicated that in Ghana, Mali, Nigeria and Zambia, more than 65% of the children with high fever were treated at home or locally with herbal medicines (WHO, 2004). The utilization of plants as drugs dated back in the middle Paleolithic age, which was about 60,000 years ago (Farnsworth et al., 2001).

1.2     STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

Healthcare services in Nigeria are not adequately distributed and this has really contributed to extremely high maternal mortality ratio, representing one of the highest in the world. It is to be noted that that greater number of new antibiotics have been produced by pharmaceutical industries in the last 30 years and there is a gradual increase in the resistant level of microorganisms to these drugs (Karuppiah and Mustaffa 2013). WHO (2014) global observation of antimicrobial resistance disclosed that antibiotic resistance is not a future prediction anymore; rather it is happening right now, worldwide. Even with the fact that people have been using these medicinal plants to cure various diseases in Southeastern Nigeria, their usage is never or rarely documented, and information is being passed orally and verbally from one generation to the other, which poses a negative impact on indigenous knowledge because it might be lost at any point in time. Even with the verbal information on these plants, the medicinal potentials and efficacies of the acclaimed botanicals as well as their safety are not certain.


1.3       JUSTIFICATION OF STUDY

There is need for reduction of child morbidity and mortality, and this is actually another challenge being encountered by the Federal government of Nigerian. It was reported that an estimated mortality rate of children below 10 years in Nigeria hovers between 97 and 120 per thousand birth (UNICEF 2001, WHO 2005). Greater percentage of the number of people in developing countries relies on traditional medicines for primary healthcare system. These traditional medicines are cost effective, safe and affordable (WHO, 2002).This suggest that local medicinal plants need to be screened and authenticated for antimicrobial and other medicinal properties of their extracts against known organisms which depend on the bioactive phyto-components present in the plants (Karadi et al., 2011; Okorondu et al., 2010; Veeramuthu et al., 2006). Iwu et al. (1999) reported that the main advantages of using plant-obtained drugs are their relatively safety nature which is better than synthetic alternatives, providing profound remedial performance and cheaper treatment.

The native knowledge of indigenous medicinal plants is very relevant in drug development and discovery, and this is the reason for devotional efforts towards their documentation to avoid their extinction. Traditional healing knowledge is still with the traditional healers even from time immemorial, passing from one generation to the other with little or no proper documentation (Cheikhyeoussef et al., 2011). Botanicals serve as effective agents for the treatment of various diseases because of the diverse collections of biologically active compounds with multiple mechanisms of actions that may augment each other’s activity or have interactive effect to providing satisfactory effects.

Therefore, it is possible that the complicacy of disease may be addressed with a treatment strategy involving these complex compounds. The vital functions that plant-derived therapeutics have played in both traditional and modern health care systems is strikingly evident with the fact that medicinal and plant preparations have been used for thousands of years and can even be traced as the wellspring compounds in more than 25% of currently marketed pharmaceuticals (WHO, 2002).  This study therefore documents the medicinal plants used for children’s ailment in south eastern Nigeria as an alternative to synthetic or orthodox medicine. The pharmacological studies and toxicity levels of some of these botanicals were also looked into, with the view to contributing in the ongoing search for new and additional substances that could be useful for providing new drugs.


1.4       AIM AND OBJECTIVES

The aim of this study is:

To carry out ethno-botanical survey and pharmacognostic analysis of indigenous medicinal plants used to treat common childhood diseases in South East Nigeria.

Specific Objectives include to:

i.Identify and document various medicinal plants used in the management of common childhood diseases in South-East Nigeria.

ii. Obtain information on their herbal preparations, duration of treatment, adverse effects (if any), doses, and methods of administration.

iii.To ascertain the anti-bacterial effect of some of the identified plants.

iv.Conduct in-vivo anti-diarrheal assays of some of the acclaimed anti-diarrheal plants.



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A COMPARATIVE STUDY ON THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND CONSUMPTION PATTERN OF INDIGENOUS SNACKS COMMONLY CONSUMED IN BIDA, NIGER STATE

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