EFFECT OF GENDER ON THE ADOPTION OF IMPROVED GINGER PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGIES IN SOUTH-EAST NIGERIA

INTRODUCTION

Ginger (Zingiber officinale) is a herbaceous, perennial plant belonging to the order Scitamineae and the family Zingiberaceae. It is both a root crop and a typical herb extensively grown across the world for its distinct pungent aromatic under-ground stem which makes it an important export commodity in world trade (Nmadu and Marcus, 2012; Ajibade and Dauda, 2005). According to Amadi, Ewuziem, Njoku, Nwaogu, Danbaba and Ebeniro (2013), the crop is perhaps the most important rhizome producing spice that contains a cysteine protease known as zingibain which has a wider application in food and drug industries.

Ginger is one of the most important tuber crops in the tropics and its rhizome is highly cherished because of its essential oil and oleoresin contents (Nwaogu, 2013).  Among the spices (pepper, ginger, onions, and chilies,) ginger is the only one that is grown on a commercial scale for export in Nigeria (Emehute, 2003; Ebeniro, Ano and Obasi, 2012). It is grown as a cash crop for domestic and export purposes. In countries such as India and china, ginger is an important economic crop due to its export potential (Nwaogu, 2013). Ginger is commonly used as a cooking spice throughout the world as well as medicine and ornamental in so many parts of the world (Ebeniro et al., 2012). It contains gingerol, shogaol and zingiberene which have anti-oxidant properties. The rhizome is a good source of dietary fiber, vitamin E, vitamin B6, Iron, magnesium, k and Selenium (Abewumi, 2008; Nwaogu, 2013).

According to Nwaogu (2013) ginger root is very low in cholesterol and sodium and is full of anti-inflammatories. The crop is been used to provide relief to conditions such as asthma, painful menstruations, migraines and indigestions.

Ginger waste meal has also shown promise of being an alternative energy substitute for maize in the diet of growing rabbits, therefore ginger is an economic crop yet to be exploited (Verma, Sighn, Jain, and Borchia, 2004; Makarau, Rabiu, Mohammed, Anna, Yakubu, and Gadzama, 2013). It has been confirmed that ginger has a long standing potent tendencies that carry medicinal or therapeutic remedies as a result of its biological active components. This remedies includes its ability to aid digestion and absorb food components into our bodies, improve fertility, help in fighting cancer and boosting body immunity, reduce blood cholesterol, warm the body and liberate stagnant body fluids, reduce blood pressure, ensures easy and normal menstrual flow, helps in the control of flu and influenza, re-awakens the body system and takes away stress (Yakubu, 2007; Amadi et al., 2013).

Recently, advanced research has proven that ginger could be used to cure certain ailments. Al-Achi (2007) reported that ginger is contraindicated in people suffering from gallstones, as the herb promotes the release of bile from the gall bladder. Chen and Li-jiau (2007) noted that ginger compounds are active against a form of diarrhoea, which is the leading cause of infant death in developing countries. The rhizome has been found effective for treating nausea caused by seasickness, morning sickness and chemotherapy (Ernest and Pittler, 2000). Over the last decades, the crop has been found to be anti-carcinogenic through many different pathways. It has been shown to prevent initiation, promotion and progression of various types of cancer (Bisset and Wichtl, 1994; Enwuziem, Ironkwe and Onyenobi, 2010). Ginger may also decrease joint pain from arthritis, though studies on this have been inconsistent, and may have blood thinning and cholesterol lowering properties that may make it useful for treating heart disease (University of Maryland Medical Centre, 2006; Amadi et al., 2013).                                                   

Ginger’s origin is not well established, though it is generally thought to be a native of Asia, where it was first cultivated; it was also cultivated in the tropical regions of America. The crop was introduced to Europe by Arab traders from India in the first century AD. The Arabs also took the plant from India to East Africa in the thirteenth century while the Portuguese took it to West Africa and other part of the tropics in the sixteen century. Ginger was introduced to Nigeria in 1927. The spice was known in Germany and France in the ninth century and had become common in trade as pepper by the thirteenth century. The plant is now cultivated in different parts of Nigeria, though the major producing areas include Kaduna, Nassarawa, Sokoto, Zamfara, Akwa-Ibom, Oyo, Imo, Abia and Lagos States, Southern Kaduna still remains the largest producer of fresh ginger in Nigeria KADP (2000); KADP (2004); Bernard (2008); and Ofurum (2013), while in South-East the interest is rising.

Nigeria’s ginger is highly valued in the international market for its high oil and oleoresin content (All Things Ginger, 2012). According to Amadi et al. (2013) ginger production steadily increased and averaged 128,256 metric tons from a harvested area of 133,766 hectares in the last decade. Also, Nigeria’s production of ginger in 2011 was 160,000 metric tonnes which contributed to about 7.8% of the world’s production FAOSTAT data (2014), 90% of which was dried primarily for export while 10% was locally consumed fresh. According to Ezeagu (2006) 20% of the dried ginger is been consumed locally for various uses while 80% is been exported. Much of Nigeria’s ginger is used for the distillation of essential oils and the extraction of oleoresin for flavouring and seasoning. Traditionally, the rhizome is used for both medicinal and culinary purposes.

Ginger farmers in Nigeria grow mainly two cultivars namely UG1 “Tafin-Giwa”, (yellowish plump rhizomes,) and UG2 “Yatsun-Biri”, (black or darker smaller rhizomes which is higher  in monoterpene and oil, giving a more pungent aroma and pungency that makes it preferred for the production of oils and oleoresins) (KADP, 2000; ITC, 2007; Chukwu and Emehute, 2003; Amadi et al., 2013). Based on cursory estimates, about 70% of production is devoted to UG1 while 30% is devoted to UG2 (Amadi et al., 2013).

From 1974, however, the National Root Crops Research Institute (NRCRI), Umudike, took leadership of, and embarked on rigorous and active research into the genetic improvement, production, processing, storage, utilization and marketing of root and tuber crops of economic importance in Nigeria (NRCRI, 2009).  The mandate crops are cassava, yam, sweet potato, cocoyam, ginger, potato, sugar beet, turmeric, rizga and Hausa potato (Nwosu, 2004). The Institute carries out the research work sometimes in collaboration with other research centers like the International Institute for Tropical Agriculture (IITA), faculties of agriculture of universities in the country etc. These research efforts have led to the development of many improved technologies (Mbanaso, Agwu, Anyanwu and Asumugha, 2012). With regard to ginger, these technologies includes site selection, land preparation, timely planting, use of grass mulch, use of broad leaves mulch, appropriate spacing, use of organic manure, use of in-organic manure, use of herbicide, improved ginger varieties, notable among which are the UG1 and UG2 varieties. In this vein, Udealor and Asiegbu (2006), cited in Ejechi Tologbonse, Adeniji and Ono (2013) reported that better yields are obtained when improved crop genotypes are used with suitable cultural practices.

The most important determinant of the effectiveness of research results is the level of adoption of innovations that it generates, and on their profitability (Caswell, Fuglie, Ingram, Jans and Kascak 2001; Okoye, Okoye, Nwankwo, Eluwa and Madu, 2012). The adoption of improved production practices by farmers leads to improved yields of crops. According to Agbarevo (2010), increase in farmers’ output as a result of application of better technologies can be used to measure the success of an agricultural development programme, or project because increase in production translates into increased income, which further translates into improved standard of living. In the same vein, studies have shown positive correlation between adoption of extension recommendations by farmers and crop yields which translate into increased income and improved quality of life of farmers (African Rice Centre, 2007; Kaine, 2006; Emeson and Nwabu, 2006 and Ejechi et al., 2013).  Similarly, Emenyonu, Odii, and Onyeagbocha (2005) reported significant differences between cassava yields of farmers adopting improved cassava production technologies and non- adopters in Delta state. In addition, the faster a research can be completed, the higher the turnover of benefits. More so, the more evident research results are, the easier it is to justify the implementation of, and continued investment in research programs. A common problem for many individuals and organization is how to speed up the rate of diffusion of a research programs innovation (Okoye et al., 2012). However, for a successful adoption of a technology; farmers must not only know about it, but must be able to follow the recommendations given (Adekoya and Togogbonse, 2005; Ejechi et al., 2013). Therefore, a thorough knowledge of the target group in the development and dissemination of the technology is a prerequisite to adoption of the technology in question (Ejechi et al., 2013). Hence, the ability to increase food production in developing countries especially Nigeria has great gender implications (Ejechi et al., 2013).

Gender is a term often associated with roles and responsibility of males and females in the society as a social classification of sex (Sinkaiye and Jibowu, 2005; Ejechi et al., 2013). According to World Bank global monitoring report, gender refers to the economic, social, political, and cultural attributes and opportunities associated with being man or woman (World Bank, 2007c). People are born female or male, but learn to be women and men. Perceptions of gender are deeply rooted, vary widely both within and between cultures, and change over time. But in all cultures, gender determines power and resources for females and males (FAO, 2011). Farm operations that require a lot of energy such as land clearing and land preparation are predominantly carried out by men, while women predominantly carried out relatively lighter operations in the farm which include processing, harvesting and storage (Madu, Okoye, Alozie, Ironkwe, Njoku and Edeoga, 2015).

Gender gaps in terms of production in the agricultural sector are common phenomena in many developing countries especially among farmers. In Nigeria, men and women participate in traditional agriculture performing different roles. These roles are gender specific, complimentary and reciprocal in natural activities like bush clearing, land preparation, harvesting, processing and marketing (Brearley, 2005). Madu et al. (2015) reported that if the contribution of men and women are taken into account equitably when allocating productive resources, agricultural production can be on the increase. Women are involved in the production and processing of certain food crops such as cassava, sweet potatoes, maize, yam, melon etc. and are also responsible for weeding, harvesting, transporting, storage and marketing of their crops.

Gender inequality remains a problem that has characterized the Nigerian agricultural climate. In Southern part of Nigeria women are meant to do most of farm work and have ownership of the farms while in the Northern part, men do most of the farm work and ownership of farms. Given that gender roles are culture specific, it was observed that in the middle belt region of Nigeria women make ridges and mounds while in the eastern part of the country that is certainly a job for men (Walabai, 2005; Madu et al., 2015). Gender responsibilities and difference have not been adequately considered by policy makers and extension workers in many developing countries. Gender differences have implication for farming responsibilities as it influences the farming activities performed. The allocation and distribution of farm incentives are done with gender bias (Jacoby, 1992 in Okoye, 2018). Policy makers and administrators work with baseless assumption that women play supportive role to the men who are the actual farmers (Ajao et al., 2004).

Gender analysis is therefore the study of different roles and responsibilities of men and women; their differentiated access to and control of resources; and their priority needs to better understand and address gender inequalities (FAO, 2011b). It requires data on mixed households, as well as on male - and female - headed households. This data is often not directly available, making gender analysis essential. The literature on Nigerian agriculture is relatively silent on gender related issues beyond the observation that women play a major role in the sector, particularly at subsistence level (Ajani, 2009; Fakoya et al., 2006; Ani, 2003, Ukeje, 2003). Women’s involvement in agriculture varies significantly across this vast country and it is well established that there are significant differences in gender roles among the three major ethnic groups.

1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT

Providing sufficient food for the world’s poor is a perpetual difficulty. The report of Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) shows that, by the year 2020, the world’s population will rise to at least 8 billion, and most of the increase will take place in the developing society like Nigeria (Egwu, 2013; FAO, 2004). According to Egwu (2013), the volume of available land to satisfy the increased demand for this burgeoning biomass has emerged to cultivated soils being depleted of essential nutrients and organic matter due to consecutive cropping.

It is a proven fact that agricultural production as presently practiced under conventional methods has not been able to sustain Nigeria (Makarau, Rabiu, Mohammed, Anna, Yakubu and Gadzama, 2013). According to the report of National Population Commission NPC (2006), Nigeria has a population of 140,033,542 by a projection of 3.5% annual growth which is estimated at a total land area of 92,400 Km2. This is a warning for an intensified demand for food and industrial raw materials. This circumstance according to Makarau et al. (2013) has created a lot of prepositions each focused at halting these problems which border on a transformation from the existing smallholder farming system to an increase in the efficiency of input use and output performance in the farm sector.

Despite the fact that about 70% of Nigerians are involved in agriculture, she has not yet achieved self-sufficiency in agricultural production (Obasi and Agu, 2000; Udoh, 2005). This could occur due to the facts that regardless of the outstanding contributions of women to Nigeria’s agricultural production, their productivity is generally restrained by a lack of access to production resources (World Bank, 2001, Odame et al., 2002 and Welch et al., 2000). The international development society has acknowledged that agriculture is an engine of growth and poverty reduction in countries where it is the main profession of the poor (Anríquez, 2010). But the agricultural sector in many developing nations is underperforming, in part because women, who embody a critical resource in agriculture and the rural economy through their positions as farmers, laborers, and entrepreneurs, virtually universally, face more critical limitations than men in access to productive resources (World Bank, 2007 in World Development Report, 2008). Women are restricted by various socioeconomic barriers which influence their potency in the agricultural sector. Although their key function in food production and processing have been recognized, women still beget innumerable obstacles in gaining access to resources such as land, credit, inputs, including services than men (Rahman, 2009).

Nigeria is the highest yielder of ginger in West Africa providing over 40% of the regions total production and 2nd in the world (FAOSTAT, 2017). In the world ginger trade, Nigeria was also rated as one of the principal exporting nations (FAOSTAT, 2017). Significant as this crop is, it has remained basically an overlooked crop in research development and policy (Obinatu, 2003). This anomalous circumstance is indicative of an existing policy gap. A report of Federal Ministry of Agriculture (1993) in Goni and Baba (2007), designates that Nigeria ranks prime in terms of the portion of total hectares of ginger under cultivation but her contribution to total world output is too low correlated to other countries. This can be ascribed to the fact that most of the production is carried out by smallholder conventional farmers with primitive production practices and low yields. In addition, the smallholder farmers are restrained by many difficulties like the farmers do not see it as a business enterprise, therefore are not adequately focused on profit-maximizing motive.

In this vein, Emmanuel (2008) opined that Nigerian South-East ginger sector has a lot of potentials for improved ginger productivity in a medium to a long-term investment strategy that can develop into a self-sufficient enterprise; as the region is endowed with ample ginger growing environment (FAO, 2010). According to the FAO State of Food and Agriculture (FAO SOFA) Report 2011-2012, women could boost ginger yields on their farms by 20–30% if they had the same access to productive resources and training as men. This would increase the total agricultural output in developing countries by 2.5 – 4%, and consequently lessen the number of malnourished people worldwide by 12–17%. These statistics highlight the obvious: women, in their numerous roles, essentially contribute to food security (FAO SOFA, 2011-2012).

Several attempts have been made to improve ginger production in South-East Nigeria since 1988, however, there has been a high variation of output. The increase encountered since then is too low to make a significant change in the income and standard of living of the farmers. While numerous studies have been focusing on some of the immediate causes of low output, it seems that deeper issues and causes have not been discussed (FAO, 2010).

Yield-enhancing technologies are essential to agricultural growth and development because merely increasing the area under cultivation (except in a few places) to meet the escalating food needs of growing populations is no longer sufficient. Consequently, research and adoption of new technologies are vital to enhancing agricultural productivity, which is the key to global food security and fight against poverty (Adekemi, 2014; Braun et al., 2008). In this vein, advanced ginger production technologies that are proficient in raising the farmers’ production were generated by research and disseminated to the farmers through extension services. These technologies, as put by Makarau et al. (2013) include bundling of improved rhizomes with appropriate specifications and inputs (fertilizer, herbicide and fungicide applications) etc. Notwithstanding, most of the new technologies have not fully attained the desired goals e.g., high rate of adoption (Faltermeier and Abdulai, 2009). Farmers’ access to and use of these research technologies are still unsatisfactory. There remains an inconsistency between what the research findings show to be feasible or available and what farmers know and use to increase ginger production in South-East Nigeria.

Technology adoption has a direct effect on the farmer’s income, usually emanating from higher yields, higher prices, or both. Many studies (Agbarevo and Obinne, 2009; Agbarevo, 2010; and Agbarevo, 2011) on adoption of improved crop production technologies were provided towards enhancing yield and maximizing profit, ignoring socio-economic determinants of the farmers which influence and contribute to adoption. In this vein, Karanja, Renkow, and Crawford (2003) argued that if farmers fail to embrace/adopt the package, tremendous outputs may not be realized. Nonetheless, growth in the agricultural and rural sectors is threatened by gender-related constraints and unequal access to productive resources as well as opportunities (Adekemi, 2014). There has been a misconception about gender as being the promotion of women only. Nevertheless, gender focuses on the relationship between men and women, their roles, access to and control over resources, a division of labor and needs. Gender relations determine household security, the well-being of the family, planning, agricultural production and many other aspects of rural life (Ozioma and Edeoga, 2015; Adekemi, 2014 and Frischmuth, 1997).

In Nigeria, Millions of women work as farmers, farm workers and natural resource managers (Onyemobi, 2000), thereby contributing to national agricultural output, maintenance of the environment and family food security (Brown, Feldstein, Haadad, Pena and Quisumbig, 2001; Adekemi, 2014). According to FAO, rural women in particular, are liable for half of the world’s food production and produce between 60-80% of the food in the developing countries. Despite their contribution to agriculture, women are frequently undervalued and underestimated in development strategies (FAO, 2005). Gender inequalities and lack of attention to gender in agricultural development contribute to lower productivity, and higher levels of poverty as well as under-nutrition (World Bank, FAO and IFAD, 2009; FAO, 2011).

There are shreds of evidence that men and women do not adopt new technologies at the same rate or benefit equally from their introduction in developing countries. According to Doss and Morris (2001) and Adekemi (2014), Women adopt high-yielding varieties and enhanced management systems at very low rates in Africa. This upshot may be due to time and resource constraints that women often face. It is, therefore, expedient on the development agenda to devise strategies promoting gender equality in access to improved technology and economic opportunities which will contribute to the empowerment of rural women and men as well as agricultural and economic development.

It has been ascertained that gender influences human behaviors or decisions in many respects but the extent to which gender has influenced the adoption of improved ginger technology in South-East Nigeria was not known. It is in view of this, that this study becomes relevant to Nigeria’s current circumstance and South-East in particular. Hence, an investigation on this topic is needed. This is expedient in this period of global shortage of financial and employment opportunities when collective effort has been made to ensure self-reliance in Nigeria. This has, therefore, necessitated a study on the effect of gender on the adoption of improved ginger technologies in South-East Nigeria.

1.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

From the foregoing, this study therefore sought answers to the following research questions;

i.               what are the socio-economic characteristics of ginger farmers in the study area;

ii.              what is the level of awareness of the disseminated improved ginger production technologies in the study area;

iii.            what are the gender roles in ginger production in the study area;

iv.            what is the level of access to, control over resources and involvement in decision making by male and female farmers in ginger production in the study area;

v.              what is the extent of adoption of improved ginger technologies in the study area; and

vi.            what are the constraints of farmers to adoption of improved Ginger production technologies in the study area?

1.4 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The broad objective of this study was to analyze the effect of gender on the adoption of improved ginger technologies in South-East Nigeria. The specific objectives were to:

i.                identify the socio-economic characteristics of ginger farmers;

ii.               ascertain the awareness of the improved ginger production technologies disseminated to the farmers;

iii.            describe the gender roles in ginger production;

iv.            ascertain the level of access to, control over resources and involvement in decision making by male and female farmers in ginger production;

v.              assess the level of adoption of improved ginger technologies; and

vi.            determine the constraints of farmers to adoption of improved ginger production technologies in the study area.

1.5  HYPOTHESES

 H₀₁: Selected socio-economic factors of male and female ginger farmers do not significantly influence adoption of improved ginger production technologies.

H₀₂: Selected technology attributes do not significantly influence the adoption of improved ginger production technologies by male and female ginger farmers in the study area.

H₀₃: There is no significant difference in the adoption of improved ginger production technologies between male and female ginger farmers.

H₀₄: There is no significant difference in ginger yield between male and female ginger farmers.

1.6  JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY

Given the variability of gender roles in agriculture, generalizations about time use from one region to another are not appropriate. Studies that consider the gender roles within their specific geographic and cultural context can provide practical guidance for policy makers and practitioners involved in technology investments, extension services, post-harvest activities and marketing interventions. Hence, accurate, current, regionally specific information and analysis is necessary for good gender-aware agricultural policy making. To this effect, data are needed to better understand gender roles in agricultural production and how they change over time and in response to new opportunities. In this vein, this study is justified by the fact that it will provide needed information on the gender roles of ginger farmers in the South-East region.

Studies have shown that technology adoption has a direct effect on the farmer’s income, usually resulting from higher yields, higher prices, or both. Yield improving technologies usually involve bundling of improved seeds with appropriate fertilizer, pesticide, fungicide applications, etc. According Karanja et al. (2003), if farmers fail to adopt the package, higher outputs may not be realized. Therefore, this study will further furnish us with information as to the level of adoption of improved ginger production technologies on the basis of gender, as well as the effect of adoption of these technologies on the yield of ginger in the region.

This study is also deemed relevant in the sense that not much has been carried out on this study especially as it has to do with the South-East region to the best of the researchers’ knowledge; given that the National root crops research institute is located in the region which ought to be the major cultivators/producers of the crop in the country. As such, the study will unearth the effect of gender on the adoption of improved ginger production technologies; establish the gender determinants on the decision to adopt the production technologies as well as provide insight on the constraints of farmers to the adoption of the production technologies in the region. Moreover, this research would be imperative to both the federal and state ministries of Agriculture, NGO’s, research institutions and other international organizations in providing information that will be helpful in designing gender responsive policies that would promote the development of appropriate technologies, thereby, contributing to overall agricultural development and food security in Nigeria. Also, this study is significant in the view that it would contribute to the body of knowledge regarding gender influence on technology adoption. Hence, it could serve as the basis for further research into related areas.

1.7  OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF TERMS

1.     Gender: This is the culturally specific set of characteristics that identifies the social behavior of women and men and the relationship between them. i.e. it is the socially constructed relationships between men and women.

2.     Sex: This refers to biological differences between men and women. An individual is a male or female regardless of race, class or age. However, the social meaning attached to that person’s sex may be different.

3.     Gender roles: These are clusters of socially or culturally defined and learned expectations about how people will behave in specific situations.

4.     Gender equity: This is the process of being fair to women and men. Usually, equity leads to equality. Gender equity therefore denotes the equivalence in life outcome for women and men recognizing their different needs and interest.

5.     Gender equality: This refers to the allocation of resources, opportunities, support and encouragement without any discrimination on the basis of biology, between men and women i.e. it means that women and men have equal conditions for realizing their full human rights and potential to contribute to national, political, economic, social and cultural development and benefit from the results.

6.     Household: This refers to all persons occupying the same house including relatives as well as lodgers.

7.     Gender division of labor: This is the organization of labour on the assumption that men perform specific roles and that women provide domestic labour such as house wives.

8.     Gender awareness: This is a situation whereby all players in an organization or institution recognize the importance of gender and its effects on their objectives, plans and programs

9.     Gender blindness: This is the conscious development of objectives, plans and programs in an organization with no effort to recognize or incorporate gender issues that might influence the functioning of that organization, the production of plans, the implementation of programs and the outcomes of the programs. It is reinforced or practiced by people who do not or refuse to consider gender as a factor in institutional settings (Odejide, 2011).

10.  Gender sensitivity: This is the translation of awareness into practices, which result in changes in the perceptions, plans and activities of institutions and organizations.

11.  Gender relations: This involves hierarchical relations of power between women and men that tend to discourage women.

12.  Gender gap: This is referred to as the difference in the scores between men and women on attitudes, interests, behaviors, knowledge and perspectives on particular issues such as policy preferences and voting preferences. Gender Gap may be attributable to women’s difference or distance in perspective or independence from men in opinions, perceptions, economic interests and social and psychological autonomy. It varies according to class, race, age, marital status, religion and other factors (Gender Equity policy, 2011)

13.  Gender needs: Shared and prioritized needs identified by women that arise from their common experiences.

14.  Gender discrimination: This is the systematic treatment of individuals on the basis of their gender, which denies them basic rights, opportunities or resources.

15.  Women empowerment: This is a bottom-up process of transforming gender power relations, through individuals or groups developing awareness of women’s subordination and building their capacity to challenge it. It is about men and women taking control over their lives, setting their own agendas, gaining skills, building up self-confidence, solving problems and developing self-reliance.

16.  Adoption: This is a decision of “full use of an innovation as the best course of action available” (Rogers, 2003)

17.  Innovation: This is an idea, practice or object that is perceived as new by an individual or other unit of adoption (Rogers, 2003).

18.  Technology: According to Rogers “a technology is a design for instrumental action that reduces the uncertainty in the cause-effect relationships involved in achieving a desired outcome”.

19.  Effect: This is a change which is a result or consequence of an action or other cause.

20.  Improved: This is an act of enhancing or making better in terms of quality, value or usefulness. This can be by making ideas, objects or processes more desirable by adding or removing components.

21.  Improved ginger technologies: This is defined as the technologies that are not indigenous to the respondents in the study area.

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