ABSTRACT
Borehole and production water is water safe enough to be consumed by humans or used with low risk of immediate or long term harm and for production. Water samples collected from three different pharmaceutical companies (Swiss pharmaceutical company, pharmaceutical company and Mopson pharmaceutical company) were subjected to physicochemical and microbiological analysis using to evaluate the quality. The results showed that pH, alkalinity, sodium, potassium, nickel, cadmium, zinc, iron, dissolved oxygen and biological oxygen demand of all the water samples are in conformity with the WHO limits while vanadium and chromium were not detected in the samples. The production water samples were within the standards for consumable water and so are considered safe for human consumption and drug production.The microbiological analyses were conducted for the following parameters: total bacterial count, total fungal count, total coliforms, Escherichia coli and vibrio count and it passed test and is recommended for production of drugs and also for human consumption. Finally, from the test carried out, there is no much difference in quality between the borehole and production water in the three pharmaceutical companies but water samples from Swiss pharmaceutical is assumed best.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE i
CERTIFICATION PAGE iii
DEDICATION iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS v
TABLE OF CONTENTS vi
ABSTRACT viii
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Sources
of water 3
1.3 Importance
of water 5
1.4 Water
pollution 8
1.4.1 Control
of water pollution 9
1.5 Water
quality 10
1.6 Borehole
water 11
1.7
Objectives of the work 12
1.8 Sampling
13
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW 14
CHAPTER THREE: MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1 Sample
locations 21
3.2 Sample
collection and preparation 21
3.3 Method
of analysis 22
3.4 Determination
of physicochemical parameters 23
3.5 Microbiological
analysis 27
3.6 Metal
content determination 28
CHAPTER 4:
RESULTS
4.0 Results 31
CHAPTER 5:
DISCUSSIONS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1 Discussion 32
5.2 Conclusion 33
5.3 Recommendation 34
REFERENCES 37
CHAPTER ONE
1.0
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of
the Work
Water is a universal solvent, which
consist of hydrogen and oxygen atoms. Chemically, it could be defined as a
chemical substance with two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen in each of
its molecules; hence the molecular formula is H2O. It is formed by
the direct reaction of hydrogen with oxygen;
2H2
+ O2 
2H2O
Water is colourless, odourless and
tasteless liquid in its pure form. It is an inorganic substance that occurs in
three states; liquid gaseous and solid states1. Water covers 71% of
the earth surface. On earth , it is found mostly in oceans and other large
water bodies with 1.6% of water below ground in aquifers and 0.001% in the air
as vapour clouds (formed from the solid and liquid water particles suspended in
air), and precipitation (Baker and Taras (1981). Oceans hold 97% of surface water, glacier and
polar ice cap 2.4% and other land surface water such as rivers, lakes and ponds
0.6%. A very small amount of the Earths water is contained within biological
bodies and manufactured products. Water on earth moves continually through a
cycle of evaporation, transpiration, precipitation and runoff, usually reaching
the sea. Overland, evaporation and transpiration contributes to the
precipitation. Clean and fresh drinking water is essential for human and other
life forms. Access to safe drinking water has improved steadily and
substantially over the last decades in almost every part of the world. There is
a correlation between access to safe water and GDP, per capital (Dezider and
Davieta, (1992). However, some observers have estimated that by 2025 more than
half of the world population will be facing water-based vulnerability (Fredrick,
2002).
As water is heated from 0OC, it contracts until 4oC
is reached and then begins the expansion which is normally associated with
increasing temperature. The viscosity of water decreases ten folds as the
temperature is raised from 0OC to 100 OC, and this also
is associated with the decrease of ice like character in the water as the
hydrogen bonds are disrupted by increasing thermal agitation. The electrical
conductivity of water is at 1,000,000 times larger than that of most other
non-metallic liquids at room temperature. The current in this case is carried by
ions produced by the dissociation of water according to the reaction;
H2O H+ + OH-
These products recombine completely to form water
vapour, also undergo most of the chemical reactions of liquid water and at very
high concentration even shows some of the unusual solvents properties of liquid
water. Above 3740C, water vapour may be compressed to any density
without liquefying, and at a density as high as 0.4glcm3, it can
dissolve appreciable quantities of salt (Greenberg et al., 2006).
Water is an essential natural resource for
sustainability of life on earth. Humans may survive for several weeks without
food, but barely few days without water because constant supply of water is
needed to replenish the fluids lost through normal physiological activities,
such as respiration, perspiration, urination, (Binnic et al., 2002).
Though the hydrosphere is estimated to contain about 1.36 billion Km3, only
about 0.3% of the water, existing as fresh water in rivers, streams springs and
aquifers, is available for human use; the remaining 99.7% is locked up in seas
and oceans (Ukabiala et al., 2010). The geological constraints limit
accessibility of many human communities to water that is adequate in terms of
quantity, quality and sustainability. Lack of adequate supply of potable water
is a critical challenge in developing countries such as Nigeria. Potable water,
also called drinking water in reference to its intended use, is defined as
water which is fit for consumption by humans and other animals. The usual source of drinking water is the
streams, rivers, wells and boreholes which are mostly untreated and associated
with various health risks (Tchobanoglous, et al., 2003).
1.2 Sources of Water
Water naturally exists in three main
sources; rain water, ground water and surface water.
Rain water is naturally the purest
source of water but as it gets down it absorbs compounds from the atmosphere.
Its main components are chlorides, nitrates, sulphates, sodium, potassium and
ammonia. The concentration can vary from 0.1 to 10uglml. The rain can be
collected from roofs and prepared water sheds which could assist in polluting
and making it one of the most unfit sources of water for drinking (Huisman and
Wood, 2006).
Ground water are said to have emanated
from the melting of meteoric water (rain, snow, and hailstone), into the
ground, they have served as source of domestic water supply. It offers cheaper
and purer supply. The main ionic components are chloride, nitrate, sulphates,
potassium, sodium and calcium. This includes natural springs, wells and
boreholes (Kalua and Chiepta, 2005). As it percolates into the earth it is
subjected to some purification actions by the numerous chains of pervious and
impervious rock strata or layers. Because of the disintegrating and dissolving
power of water, it dissolves some of the rocks which make up the earth layers
making it to have impurities like oxides, nitrate, sulphates, calcium, iron,
magnesium. Some level of purity is achieved on turbidity, colour, odour and
taste. It reaches surface through wells, shafts, springs, borehole.
The oceans hold about 97% of earth’s
water. More than 2% is locked up in ice in the polar caps, and over 75% of the
fresh water of the world is ice of the 1% of the liquid fresh water. Some is
ground water at depths of over 1000 feet and impractical to obtain, and only
the very small difference, possibly 0.6% of the total water of this planet is
ever available to man as it cycles sea to atmosphere to land to sea.
Surface water includes streams, ponds
and lakes, its main ionic compounds include chlorides, nitrates, sulphates,
magnesium and calcium. The concentration of components here are more than those
in rain water and ground water. Sea water could be considered as surface water.
The salt content in it is so much that it cannot be used as drinking water
because it would take the body a lot of work to flush out excess salt before
usage for metabolism, it is also inadequate in the machinery use as it rust machines,
it kills most crops frequently carry suspended solids (Jarup, 2003).
Water can dissolve many different
substances giving it different taste and odour. In fact, humans and other
animals have developed senses to be able to evaluate the portability of the
putrid swamps; and favour the pure water of the mountain, spring, and aquifer.
Humans also tend to prefer cold water rather than lukewarm, as cold water is
likely to contain fewer microbes. The pleasant taste associated with spring
water or mineral water is derived from the minerals dissolved in it, as pure
water is tasteless.
1.3 Importance of
Water
Water is an indispensable rain material for a multitude of
domestic and industrial purpose. Water is the most abundant material, its cheap
production with less than 500ppm impurities will be more important to the world
than atomic energy, as we all know it today. Water plays an important role in
the world economy as it functions as a solvent for a wide variety of chemical
substances and facilities industrial cooling and transportation. Approximately
70% of fresh water is consumed by agriculture (Okonkwo et al., 2008).
Domestic uses of water includes;
cooking, washing of clothes, cars, dishes, to shower, flushing away of wastes
and drinking. The human body contains 55% to 78% water depending on body size (Lomborg,
2001). To function properly, the body requires between one and seven litres of
water to avoid dehydration; the precise amount depends on the level of
activity, temperature, humidity and other factors. Most of these are injected
through foods or beverages other than drinking water directly. It is not clear
how much water intake healthy people need, though most advocates agree that 6-7
of glasses of water daily is the minimum to maintain proper hydration.
Water is used for fighting wildfires. Water
has a high heat of vaporization and is relatively inert, which makes it a good
fire extinguishing fluid. The evaporation of water carries heat away from the
fire. However, water cannot be used to fight fires of electric equipments
because impure water is electrically conductive or of oils and organic
solvents, because they float on water and the explosive boiling of water tends
to spread the burning liquid. Use of water in
fire fighting should also take account the hazards of a stream
explosion, which may occur when water is used on very hot fires in confined
spaces, and of a hydrogen explosion, which may react with water, such as
certain metals or hot graphite, decomposed the water producing hydrogen gas.
Water is used in biochemical processes,
it is central to photo synthesis and respiration. Photosynthetic cells use the
sun’s energy to split off water molecule (photolysis of water) to form hydrogen
and oxygen.
2H2O 4H + + 4e- + O2
Hydrogen is combined with CO2
(absorbed from air or water) to form glucose and released oxygen. All living
cells use such fuels and oxidized the hydrogen and carbon to capture the sun’s
energy and reform water and CO2 in the process (cellular
respiration). Water is also central to acid-base neutrality and enzyme
function. An acid, a hydrogen ion (H+, that is a proton) donor can
be neutralized by a base, a proton acceptor, such as hydroxide ion (OH-)
to form water. Water is considered to be neutral, with a pH (the negative log
of the hydrogen ion concentration) of 7. Acids have pH values less than 7 while
bases have values greater than 7.
In agriculture, the most important use
of water is for irrigation, which is a key component to produce enough food.
Irrigation takes up to 90% water withdrawn in some developing countries and
significant proportions in developed countries, (United State 30% of fresh
water usage is for irrigation).( Niemi et al., 2001).
Water is widely used in chemical
reactions as a solvent, dissolving many ionic compounds. In organic reactions
it does not dissolve the reactants well and is amphoteric (acidic and basic)
and nucleophilic.
In recreation, water can be used for
many purposes as well as for exercising and for sports. Some of these include
swimming, boating, surfing and diving. In addition, some sports like ice hockey
and ice-skating are played on ice. Lake sides, beaches and water paths are
popular place for people to go, relax and enjoy recreation. Humans also use
water for snow sports like sledding, snowboarding, which requires the water to
be frozen.
Industrial uses of water includes;
cooling of machinery in power plants, condenser cooling, sanitary services and
for boilers. Many industrial processes rely on reactions using chemicals
dissolved in water, suspensions of solids in water slurries or using water to
dissolve and extract substances.
Water is used in power generation.
Hydro-electricity is electricity obtained from hydropower. Hydroelectric power
comes from water driving and water turbine connected to a generator.
Hydroelectricity is low-cost, non-polluting, renewable energy source. The sun
supplies the energy. Heat from the sun evaporates water, which condenses as
rain at higher altitudes from where it flows down. Pressurized water is used in
blasting and water jet cutters. Also very high-pressure water guns are used for
precise cuttings. It works very well; it is relatively safe and not harmful to
the environment. It is also used in the cooling of machinery to prevent
overheating as in vehicle radiators.
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