ABSTRACT
This research work is aimed at assessing the quality of ground water (borehole) in Amawom, Ikwuano L.G.A Abia State Nigeria. An investigative study was carried out to determine the bacteriological and physicochemical qualities of borehole water samples in Amawom. Ten water samples were collected randomly from ten selected borehole with Amawom village. In the study, total heterotrophic bacteria and total coliforms were determined using pour plate method and multiple tube/most probable number (MPN) methods respectively. Identifications of isolates were done using standards methods based on cultural, morphological characteristics and a battery of biochemical tests. The identified organisms (and their percentage occurrence) include: Klebsiella spp. (100%), Enterobacter spp. (90%), Vibrio cholera (60%), S. aureus (80%), Salmonella spp. (60%), and E. coli (70%). In this study, the total heterotrophic bacteria count of the samples analyzed ranged from 2.5 x 103 to 8.1 x 103 CFU/ml. The results obtained from this study showed that faecal coliform bacteria were present in thirty percent (30%) of the samples analyzed while all the samples contained coliform bacteria with counts ranging from 0 to 2.0 x 103 CFU/ml for faecal coliform and 7 to 49 MPN/100ml for total coliforms. The physicochemical analysis was also carried out on selected (representative) borehole samples. The parameters determined and their ranges include: pH (6.84-7.03), temperature (all 28.2 0C), conductivity (33.2-54.4 uS/cm), turbidity (all 0.1 NTU), TDS (14-51.2 mg/L), TSS (1-2 mg/L), chloride (2-6 mg/L), DO (4-6 mg/L), BOD (0.4-0.8 mg/L), COD (0.9-1.3 mg/L), nitrate (5.3-7.5 mg/L), phosphate (0.02-0.15 mg/L), sulphate (1-1.4 mg/L) and total iron (0.22-0.7 mg/L). Lead and mineral oil were less than detectable limit. The investigation in this study suggested that not all boreholes waters are safe for consumption and were of poor bacteriological qualities which are indication of health risk to the inhabitants of the geographical location (Amawom) which may be as a result of improper construction/drilling of the boreholes or contamination of the storage tanks. There is need for the treatment of water from these boreholes before use in order to reduce the risk of infection. Physicochemically, the borehole samples were considered potable.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title
page i
Certification ii
Dedication
iii
Acknowledgements iv
Table
of contents v
Abstract
ix
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study 1
1.2 Need
and Objectives of the Study 5
1.3 Justification 5
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE
REVIEW
2.1
Water 7
2.2
Sources of Water 7
2.2.1
Groundwater 8
2.2.2
Surface Water 9
2.2.3
Water Obtained from Desalination 9
2.3 Borehole 9
2.3.1
Contaminants Transport in Groundwater
(Borehole Water) 10
2.4
Water Quality and Health 10
2.5
Microbial Hazards Associated with
Drinking-Water 11
2.5.1 Waterborne Infections 12
2.5.2 Persistence and Growth in Water 14
2.6 Occurrence
of Pathogens in Drinking-Water 14
2.6.1 Bacterial
Pathogens 15
2.6.1.1 Vibrio 15
2.6.1.2 Staphylococcus
aureus 17
2.6.1.3 Shigella 17
2.6.1.4 Salmonella 18
2.6.1.5 Pseudomonas
aeruginosa 19
2.6.1.6 Legionella 20
2.6.1.7 Klebsiella 21
2.6.1.8 Helicobacter
pylori 22
2.6.1.9 Escherichia
coli pathogenic strains 23
2.6.1.10 Campylobacter 24
2.7 Indicator
and index Organisms 26
2.7.1 Total Coliform
Bacteria 27
2.7.2 Escherichia coli
and Thermotolerant Coliform Bacteria 28
2.7.3 Heterotrophic Plate
Counts 30
2.7.4 Intestinal
Enterococci 30
2.7.5 Clostridium
perfringens 31
2.7.6
Other Indicator Organisms 32
2.8
Physicochemical Water Quality
Parameters 32
2.8.1
Physical parameters 32
2.8.2
Chemical parameters 34
2.9
Water Treatment and Purification 37
CHAPTER THREE: MATERIALS
AND METHODS
3.1
Study area 39
3.2
Collection of Samples 39
3.3
Preparation of Culture Media and
Diluent 40
3.4 Bacteriological Quality Determination of
the Borehole Water Samples 41
3.4.1 Total Bacterial
Count 41
3.4.2 Total Coliform Count 41
3.4.2.1
Presumptive test 42
3.4.2.2Confirmed
Test 42
3.4.2.3
Completed Test 43
3.4.3 Faecal Coliform Count 43
3.4.4
Isolation of Purified Culture and Enumeration of Bacterial Isolate s 43
3.4.5 Characterization of Bacterial Isolates 43
3.4.5.1 Morphological Growth and Identification of
Isolates on Media 43
3.4.5.2
Biochemical Tests for Identification of Bacteria Isolates 44
3.5
Determination of Physico-Chemical Properties of the Water Samples 46
3.5.1
pH and Temperature 47
3.5.2
Total Hardness 47
3.5.3
Alkalinity 47
3.5.4
Electrical Conductivity (Instrumental Method) 47
3.5.5
Total Solids (TS), Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) and Suspended Solids (SS) 47
3.5.6
Turbidity 48
3.5.7
Chloride 48
3.5.8
Iron 49
3.5.9
Colour, Odour and Taste 49
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS 50
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION,
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1 Discussion 56
5.2 Conclusion 58
5.3 Recommendation 59
REFERENCES 61
LIST OF TABLES
Tables Titles
Pages
1
Microbial water contaminant candidates listed the EPA. 12
2
Coding of samples and sources of water 40
3 The presumptive mean coliform
count using multiple tube/most probable number
4 Bacteriological counts for
borehole water samples from Amawom Ikwuano L.G.A Abia State 52
Identification
of isolates using colonial and morphological characteristics, microscopic examination after
Gram staining and biochemical test 53
Bacteria
isolated from the Borehole water samples in Amawom and their percentage
occurrence 54
7 The mean values of
physicochemical parameters analyzed
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study
Access
to safe and sufficient water and sanitation is a basic need and is essential to
human wellbeing (UN, 2010). Water is one of the earth’s most previous
resources. Although water is essential for human survival, many are denied
access to sufficient potable drinking water supply and sufficient water to
maintain basic hygiene. Globally, 1.1 billion people rely on unsafe drinking
water sources from lakes, rivers (surface water), open wells and boreholes
(ground water). Furthermore, 2.4 billion lack adequate sanitation worldwide
(WHO, 2003).
The
ensuring of good quality drinking water is a basic factor in guaranteeing
public health, the protection of the environment and sustainable development
(Ranjini et al., 2010). The quality
of drinking water is a powerful environment determinant of health and drinking
water quality management has been a key pillar of primary prevention for over
one-and –a-half century and it continues to be the foundation for the prevention
and control of water borne diseases (WHO, 2010).
Before
water can be described as potable, it has to comply with certain physical,
chemical and microbiological standards, which are designed to ensure that the
water is potable and safe foe drinking.
On
a global scale, ground water represents the world’s largest and most important
source of fresh potable water. Ground water provides potable water to an
estimated 1.5 billion people worldwide daily (DFID, 2001), and has proved to be
the most reliable resource for meeting rural water demand in sub-Saharan Africa
(MacDonald, 2002 and Harvey, 2004). Borehole is a common technology adopted by
rural and urban communities as is the case of the village Amawom in Ikwuano
L.G.A of Abia state Nigeria where this research was focused.
Generally,
groundwater quality varies from place to place, sometimes depending on seasonal
changes (Trivede et al., 2010) and
Vaishali et al., 2013), the types of
soils, rocks and surfaces through which it moves (Seth et al., 2014 and Thivya et al.,2014).
Water
has endless uses namely drinking, industrial, livestock, irrigation,
aesthetics, boating, swimming, and fishing. However, this elixir of life is
being threatened by various pollutions. Naturally occurring contaminants are
present in the rock and sediments. As groundwater flow through the sediments,
metal such as iron and manganese are dissolved and may later be found in high
concentrations in the water (Moyo, 2013).
In
addition, human activities can alter the natural composition of ground water
through the disposed or dissemination of chemical and microbial matter on the
land surface and into soils, or through injection of wastes directly into
groundwater. Industrial discharge (Govindarajan et al., 2014). Urban activities, agriculture, (Moyo, 2013), ground
water plumage and disposal of waste (Bello et
al., 2013) can affect groundwater quality. Pesticides and fertilizers applied
to lawn and crops can accumulate and migrate to the water table thus affecting
both the physical, chemical, and microbial quality of water. Health risk due to
heavy metal contamination of water through soil has been reported (Eriyanremu et al., 2005; Muchiweti et al., 2006, Singh et al., 2003).
In
rural area of Nigeria particularly Amawom Abia State Nigeria where the most
common type of sanitation is the pit latrine, this poses a great risk in the microbial
quality of groundwater. Bacterial are the major microbial contaminants found
abundantly in groundwater (boreholes) Water is essential for life, but it can
and does transmit disease in countries in all continents from the poorest to
the wealthiest. The most predominant water borne disease, diarrhea, has an
estimated annual incidence of 4.6 billion episodes and causes 2.2 million
deaths every year (WHO, 2010). There are several variants of the faecal-oral
pathway of water borne disease transmission. These includes contamination of
drinking-water catchments (e.g., by human or animal faeces), water within the
distribution system (e.g., through leaky pipes or obsolete infrastructure) or
of stored household water as a result of unhygienic handling (WHO, 2010). The
lack of safe water drinking water and adequate sanitation measure could lead to
a number of water borne diseases caused by various microorganisms especially
waterborne bacterial pathogens such as Salmonella
enteriditis (salmonellosis), Vibrio cholerae
(cholera), Shigella spp (bacillary
dysentery), E. coli 0157:H7 (gastroenteritis), Campylobacter
jejuni (gastroenteritis),
Helicobacter pylori (gastritis, peptic ulcers and gastric adenocarcinomas)
and so on (Willey et al., 2014).
According
to World Health Organization (2008), diarrheal disease accounts for an
estimated 4.1% of the total global burden of disease and is responsible for the
death of 1.8 million people every year. In developing countries, thousands of
children under five year die every day due to drinking water contaminated
water. Waterborne pathogens infect around 250million people each year resulting
in 10 to 20 million death world-wide. An estimated 80% of all illness in
developing countries (like Nigeria) is related to water and sanitation and 15%
of all child death under the age of five years in developing countries result
from diarrheal diseases (WHO, 2003; Thompson et al., 2003).
Although
a wide range of viral (Adenoviruses, Rotavirus group ABC, Astroviruses,
Noroviruses, Hepatitis A virus, Hepatitis E virus, and Polioviruses of species
Human enterovirus C), bacterial, and protozoan (Entamoeba histolytica responsible for amebic dysentery, Naegleria fowleri causing amebic menigoencephalitis, Cryptosporiduim parvum causing
cryptosporidiosis, Cyclospora cayetanensis
causing cyclosporiasis, Giardia intestinalis
causing giardiasis and Toxoplasma gondii causing
Toxoplasmosis) diseases result from the contamination of water with human and
other animal faecal wastes, the detection of indicator of organisms as an index
of possible water contamination by human pathogens has long been the standard
approach to monitoring drinking water safety (Willey et al., 2014).
The
major indicator organisms used sanitary qualities of water are coliform
bacteria. The evaluation of potable water supplies for coliform bacteria is
important in determining the sanitary quality of drinking water. High level of
coliform counts indicate a contaminated source, inadequate treatment or
post-treatment deficiencies in drinking water. These bacteria make up about 10%
of the intestinal microorganism of human and the animals, and are used widely
as indicator organisms. The lose viability in fresh water at slower rates than
most of the major intestinal bacteria pathogens. When such ‘foreign’ enteric
indicator bacteria are not detectable in a specific volume (generally 100
milliliters) of water, the water is considered potable (Latin potabilis, fit to drink) (Willey et al., 2014; APHA, 2005).
Escherichia coli
is the best coliform used as indicator organism in bacteriological analysis of
water. Detection of the disease-causing bacteria and other pathogens in water
is expensive and may pose potential health hazards. Further, testing for
pathogens requires large volume of water, and the pathogens may be difficult to
grow in the laboratory and isolate. However, this problem can be easily solved
by testing water for total coliform and faecal coliform especially E. coli
as because the generally life longer than pathogens and are easy to culture in
a laboratory than pathogens. World Health Organization Guideline for Drinking
Water Quality stated that as an indicator organism Escherichia coli provides conclusive evidence of recent faecal
pollution and should not be present in water meant for human consumption. Also,
in the US, the EPA Total Coliform Rule that water system is out of compliance
if more than 5 present of its monthly water samples contain coliforms.
According
to the World Health Organization (WHO, 2008) every effort should be made to
achieve safe drinking water supply in every community of the world because it
is known that improving access to safe drinking water can result in significant
benefits to health. In line with that, it is imperative that bacteriological
and physicochemical examination of drinking water (borehole) is routinely
conducted. Therefore, this study is focused on the bacteriological and
physicochemical examination of borehole water in Amawom Oboro Ikwuano L.G.A
Abia state, Nigeria.
1.2 Need
and Objectives of the Study
There
is no pipe-borne water supply in Amawom village, and although there are small
streams, the majority of the indigenes and students depend on bore holes as their major source of water due to
proximity and increasing population. Any pollution of groundwater in this area
will adversely affect the health of the populace; therefore it is of paramount
importance to assess its quality. Thus, this study is aimed at collecting
baseline data on the water quality of boreholes, for assessing present quality
and for up - to - date periodic surveillance in the future. The objectives are
therefore:
· to
evaluate the bacteriological quality of the borehole samples;
· to
ascertain the physicochemical parameters of the borehole water;
· to
determine the safety and potability of the borehole water by comparing with
established guidelines and standards and;
· to
proffer solutions and make recommendations to appropriate authorities.
1.3 Justification
Borehole water the only source of
drinking water in the study area (Amawom). The possibility for pathogens from
human and animal waste present in the vicinity of the borehole to contaminate
the drinking water is extremely high. Also, the borehole water may be
contaminated in the storage tanks or along the distribution system since the water
does not undergo any form of treatment before consumption. The purpose of this
research is justified by the possibilities of such contaminations. This study
carried out in 2016 was intended to identify the possible sources of
contamination of borehole in the study area and proffer solutions to them.
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