ABSTRACT
Microbiological and physicochemical quality of borehole water from Agbama Housing Estate, Umuahia was studied. A total of fifty water samples were collected and analyzed comprising ten samples from each of the five areas, A-E. The microflora of the borehole water showed the presence of seven specie of bacteria with varying levels of occurrence including Escherichia coli (80%),Staphylococcus aureus (42%), Pseudomonasspp. (26%), Shigella flexneri(10%), Salmonella typhi (6.0%), Serratia marsecens (4.0%)and Proteus mirabilis(10%), while the fungi flora recorded different species including Apsergillus niger (22%), Aspergillusfumigatus (6.0%),Mucoralternaria (40%) andRhodotorula spp. (4.0%). The total heterotrophic bacteria count was between 5.03x104cfu/ml to 6.09x104cfu/ml with a mean value 2.5.53x104cfu/ml while the total Staphylococcal count had a mean value of 3.83x104cfu/ml with a range of 3.07x104cfu/ml to 4.67x104cfu/l. The mean fungi population was between 3.26x102cfu/ml to3.94x102cfu/ml with a mean value 3.61x102cfu/ml while the coliform count was in the range of 7.0 cells/100ml to 9.5cells/100ml and a mean value of 8.0cols/100ml. Physicochemical analysis showed there were variations in the physicochemical properties of the water as the pH varied from 6.40 to 6.76, turbidity 0.86 to 1.06 NTU and Total Solids 17.87mg/ml to 22.88mg/ml. The total hardness was in the range of 43.33mg/ml to 51.89mg/ml, calcium and magnesium contents ranged from 27.12mg/ml to 55.56mg/ml and 3.17mg/ml to 4.99mg/ml respectively. It was observed that there is need for improvement in the personal and environmental hygiene of dwellers within the borehole sites to reduce external influence on the quality of the water.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title page i
Certification ii
Dedication iii
Acknowledgments iv
Table of contents v
List of Tables viii
Abstract ix
CHAPTER
ONE
Introduction 1
1.1 Aim and Objectives of the Study 5
1.1.1 Aim 5
1.1.2 Objectives of the Study 5
CHAPTER
TWO
Literature Review 6
2.1 Pollution 6
2.1.1 Forms of Pollution 6
2.2 Water 9
2.2.1 Chemical and Physical Properties of Water 10
2.2.2 Uses of Water 12
2.3 Water Pollution 13
2.3.1 Groundwater Pollution 14
2.3.2 Causes of Water Pollution 15
2.3.3 Effects of Water Pollution 16
2.3.4 Remedies of Water Pollution 17
2.4 Water Quality 18
2.4.1 Bacteriological Water Quality 19
2.4.2 Indicator Organisms of Water Quality 20
2.4.2.1 Coliform Organisms (Total Coliform) as
Indicator of Water Quality 21
2.4.2.2 Thermo-tolerant (Faecal) Coliform Bacteria as
Indicator of Water Quality 21
2.5 Microbiological Parameters for
Determination of Water Quality 22
2.5.1 Heterotrophic Plate Count 22
2.5.2 Total Coliform Plate Count 22
2.5.3 Total Faecal Coliform Count 23
2.6 Use of Bacteria as Indicators of
Pathogenic Organisms in Water 23
2.7 Water Borne Pathogens and Diseases 24
2.8 Physicochemical Water Quality 26
2.8.1 Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) 26
2.8.2 pH 27
2.8.3 Turbidity 28
2.8.4 Temperature 29
2.9 Microbiological Water Analysis 30
2.9.1 Methods of
Microbiological Water Analysis 30
2.9.1.1 Multiple Tube
Fermentation Method 31
2.9.1.2 ATP Testing Method 31
2.9.1.3 Plate Count
Method 32
2.9.1.4 Membrane Filtration Method 32
2.9.1.5 Pour Plate
Method 33
CHAPTER
THREE
Materials and Methods 34
3.1 Study Area 34
3.2 Collection of Water Samples 34
3.3 Materials
Used 34
3.4 Preparation
of the Media 35
3.5 Microbiological
Analysis of Water Samples 35
3.5.1 Total
Viable/Heterotrophic Count 35
3.5.2 Enumeration
of Total Coliform 36
3.5.2.1 Confirmative
Tests 36
3.5.2.2 Completed Tests 36
3.5.3 Total
Fungal Count 37
3.6 Characterization
and Identification of Bacterial Isolates 37
3.7 Biochemical
Tests for Identification of Bacterial Isolates 37
3.7.1 Gram
Stain Test 37
3.7.2 Catalase
Test 38
3.7.3 Coagulase
Test 38
3.7.4 Oxidase
Test 38
3.7.5 Indole
Test 39
3.7.6 Citrate
Test 39
3.7.7 Motility
Test 39
3.7.8 Carbohydrate
Fermentation Test 40
3.8 Characterization
and Identification of Fungal Isolates 40
CHAPTER
FOUR
Results 41
CHAPTER
FIVE
Discussion,
Conclusion and Recommendation 56
5.1 Discussion 56
5.2 Conclusion and Recommendation 60
References 62
Appendix I 68
Appendix II 72
LIST
OF TABLES
|
TABLE
|
TITLE
|
PAGE
|
|
4.1
|
Identification
of Bacteria Isolated from
Borehole Water Samples from Agbama Housing Estate
|
54
|
|
4.2
|
Identification of Fungi Isolated
from Borehole Water Samples from Agbama Housing Estate
|
55
|
|
4.3
|
Occurrence of Microorganisms in Borehole Water from
Agbama Housing Estate, Umuahia
|
56
|
|
4.4
|
Microbial Load (cfu/ml)
Borehole Water in Agbama Housing Estate
|
57
|
|
4.5
|
Coliform Count (MPN) of Borehole
Water Samples from Agbama Housing Estate
|
58
|
|
4.6
|
Physiochemical Analysis Borehole Water Samples
from Agbama Housing Estate
|
59
|
|
4.7a
|
Microbial Load of
Borehole Water From Area A, Agbama Housing Estate
|
60
|
|
4.7b
|
Microbial Load of
Borehole Water From Area B, Agbama Housing Estate
|
61
|
|
4.7c
|
Microbial Load of
Borehole Water From Area C, Agbama Housing Estate
|
62
|
|
4.7d
|
Microbial Load of
Borehole Water From Area D, Agbama Housing Estate
|
63
|
|
4.7e
|
Microbial Load of
Borehole Water From Area E, Agbama Housing Estate
|
64
|
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Water
of good drinking quality is of basic importance to human physiology as well as
indispensable to man’s continued existence (Idowu et al., 2011). The Greek philosopher Pindar described water as the
“best of all things”. This view is not
surprising since the need for water, throughout human history, has always been
appreciated (Biswas, 2008). Water is one of the most abundant and essential
resources of man, and occupies about 70% of earth’s surface (Eja, 2002).Although
the earth contains an abundance of water, it is known that only a small percentage
of it is fresh water. A smaller amount of this freshwater is accessible and
usable by humans and animals (Matthew, 2009). As the human population grows
rapidly, the amount of freshwater available per person shrinks. The relatively
small amount of available free water demonstrates how critical it is for
everyone to help maintain clean healthy water sources (Roberts, 2010).Water is
literally the source of life on earth. People begin to feel thirsty after a
loss of only 1% of body fluids and risk death if fluid loss near 10% (Park,
2002).
Water
is a basic human right. Without good quality of domestic water supply, man and
other living things may eventually die (Joanne, 2000). An adequate, safe and
accessible supply must be available to all. Improving access to safe water can
result in significant benefits to health. Every effort should be made to
achieve a water quality as safe as possible (Cabral, 2010). Man can go without
food for twenty eight days, but only three days without water, and two third of
a person’s water consumption per day is through food while one third is
obtained through drinking (Muyi, 2007). Basic household water requirements have
been suggested at 50 litres per person per day excluding water to gardens
(Boss, 2004). In addition to human consumption and health requirements, water
is also needed in agriculture, industrial, recreational and other purposes.
Water is also considered a purifier in most religion. The provision of water in
the past was solely a government affair; however, the inability of the government
to meet the daily demands of water for the people has forced some private
individuals and communities to seek alternatives and self-help measures of
providing water (Akin-Osanaiye et al.,
2018).
Many
people struggle to obtain access to safe water. A clean and treated water
supply to each house may be the norm in Europe and North America, but in
developing countries such as Nigeria, access to both clean water and sanitation
are not the rule, and waterborne infections are common (Fenwick, 2006). On a
global scale, groundwater represents the world’s largest and most important
source of fresh potable water. Groundwater provides potable water to an
estimated 1.5 billion people worldwide daily and has proved to be the most
reliable resource for meeting rural water demand in the sub-Saharan Africa. Due
to inability of governments to meet the ever-increasing water demand, most
people in rural areas resort to groundwater sources such as boreholes as an
alternative water resource. Thus, humans can abstract groundwater through a
borehole, which is drilled into the aquifer for industrial, agricultural and
domestic use (Palamuleni andAkoth, 2015).
However,
groundwater resources are commonly vulnerable to pollution, which may degrade
their quality. In addition, human activities can alter the natural composition
of groundwater through the disposal or dissemination of chemicals and microbial
matter on the land surface and into soils, or through injection of wastes
directly into groundwater. Industrial discharges, urban activities,
agriculture, groundwater plumage and disposal of waste can affect groundwater
quality (Bello et al., 2013; Govindarajan
and Senthilnathan, 2014). Pesticides and fertilizers applied to lawns and crops
can accumulate and migrate to the water tables thus affecting both the
physical, chemical and microbial quality of water. In rural Africa, where the
most common type of sanitation is the pit latrines, this poses a great risk on
the microbial quality of groundwater. For instance, a septic tank can introduce
bacteria to water and pesticides and fertilizers that seep into farmed soils
can eventually end up in the water drawn from a borehole. Poor sanitary
completion of boreholes may lead to contamination of groundwater. Proximity of
some boreholes to solid waste dumpsites and animal droppings being littered
around them could also contaminate the quality of groundwater (Bello et al., 2013). Therefore, groundwater
quality monitoring and testing is of paramount importance both in the developed
and developing world. The key to sustainable water resources is to ensure that
the quality of water resources are suitable for their intended uses, while at
the same time allowing them to be used and developed to a certain extent
(Palamuleni and Akoth, 2015).
Two
and a half billion people have no access to improved sanitation, and more than
1.5 million children die each year from diarrheal diseases(Fenwick, 2006). As
populations increase, the problem of obtaining safe water becomes more serious
and as such, water can endanger the health and life of human beings because
when polluted by faecal materials it becomes a potential carrier of pathogenic
organism (Miller et al., 2011; Weitz
and Wihelm, 2012).Good water quality is important in many settings, including
those found for all drinking water systems, during food production and bathing
activity. In water systems with inadequate quality control and sanitation,
water could act as a vehicle for pathogenic microorganisms that originate from
the faeces of wildlife including birds, livestock and pet animals, as well as
humans. In particular, the spread of enteric viruses, e.g. Noroviruses, are
repeatedly related to poor water quality (Adams and Moss, 2008; Grøndahl-Rosado
et al., 2014). Globally, huge efforts
are put into improving and monitoring water safety, but still it is estimated
that 1.1 billion people have water sources regularly contaminated with faecal
microorganisms (Bain et al., 2014).
According
to the WHO, the mortality of water associated diseases exceeds 5 million people
per year. From these, more than 50% are microbial intestinal infections, with
cholera standing out in the first place. In general terms, the greatest
microbial risks are associated with ingestion of water that is contaminated
with human or animal faeces (Cabral, 2010).Acute microbial diarrheal diseases
are a major public health problem in developing countries. People affected by
diarrheal diseases are those with the lowest financial resources and poorest
hygienic facilities. Children under five, primarily in Asian and African
countries, are the most affected by microbial diseases transmitted through
water (Seaset al., 2000). Microbial
waterborne diseases also affect developed countries. In the USA, it has been estimated
that each year 560,000 people suffer from severe waterborne diseases, and 7.1
million suffer from a mild to moderate infections, resulting in estimated
12,000 deaths a year (Medemaet al.,
2003).The human pathogens that present serious risk of disease whenever present
in drinking water include Salmonella
species, Shigella species, pathogenic
Escherichia coli, Vibrio cholerae, Yersinia entercolitica, Campylobacter
species, various viruses such as Hepatitis A, Hepatitis E, Rota virus and
parasites such as Entamoebahistolytica
and Giardia species and so on. Public
and environmental health protection requires safe drinking water, which means
that it must be free of pathogenic bacteria (Kumar et al., 2013).
To
assess the microbial water quality in an easy and reproducible way, standard
methods (e.g.ISO – theInternationalOrganization for Standardization) have been
developed. Such methods apply detection of certain groups of bacteria that
function as indicators for faecal contamination, a principle that had already
been suggested in the 19th century (Svanevik and Lunestad, 2015). The rationale
for examination of faecal indicator bacteria in water is as follows: (i) they
do not inhabit the aquatic environment naturally, (ii) they are initially
abundant in faeces from warm-blooded animals, (iii) if they are not present, it
is unlikely that other harmful organisms of faecal origin will be present, and
hence the water is safe, and (iv) if they are present, there is the possibility
that other potentially harmful microorganisms of faecal origin are present, and
hence the water cannot be considered safe. The most commonly used groups of
indicator organisms include coliforms, thermo-tolerant coliforms, Escherichia coli and enterococci. However,theenterococci
are known to survive better in the environment and may therefore be an
indicator for older faecal contamination (Noble et al., 2004). The criteria for water quality are set by
authorities,e.g.theEuropeanCommission(EC)and theNorwegian Food Safety Authority
(NFSA), where directives are set for water used for direct human consumption,
in preparation of foodstuff and for bathing(Svanevik and Lunestad, 2015).
1.1 Aim and Objectives of the Study
1.1.1 Aim
The
study was aimed at carrying out the microbiological examination of borehole
water at Agbama housing estate, Umuahia.
1.1.2 Objectives of the Study
1. To
determine the total viable counts, total coliform counts, total fungalcount and
total Staphylococcal counts from the collected borehole water samples.
2. To
isolate, characterize and identify bacterial and fungal isolates from the
borehole water samples.
3. To
evaluate the distribution of the isolates in the collected borehole water samples.
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