ABSTRACT
The bacteriological and physico-chemical analyses of some of the borehole water within Amaoba in Ikwuano Local Government Area Abia State were carried out. The bacteriological analysis was carried using spread plate method and MPN (most probable number) technique for coliform and faecal count. Five bacterial genera Escherichia coli, Streptococcus species, Klebsiella species, Salmonella species and Shigella species were isolated. The mean of total viable count (TVC) gave a range of 2.18×103 –12.93×103cfu/ml while Salmonella-Shigella count (SSC) gave a range of 3.08×103 – 7.78×103cfu/ml. The total coliform count (TCC) gave a range of 3.95 – 7.90MPN/100ml and total faecal count, a range of 2.38 – 10.13 MPN/100ml. The total coliform count did not exceed the standard requirement of 10 TCC MPN/100ml for Cheesbroug, WHO and NSDWQ except TVC, SSC and TFC. For the bacteriological analysis, there was no significant difference(s) (P>0.005). For the physico-chemical, the odour, colour, taste, conductivity, total suspended solids, total dissolved solid, temperature, sulphate, total hardness, calcium, magnesium, and carbondioxide were in compliance with WHO, NAFDAC, NSDWQ, and USEPA except pH that was in variations, only Umuolu, Umuoshotulu, and Umuawuru that met the standards for drinking water. From the physico-chemical result, there was significant difference(s) (P<0.05) for pH while for others there was no significant difference(s) (P>0.05). Treatment of this water sources is essential for the water to be safe for drinking.
TABLE
OF CONTENTS
Title
page i
Certification ii
Dedication iii
Acknowledgement iv
Table
of contents v
List
of figures xii
List
of tables xiii
Abstract xiv
CHAPTER ONE
1.0
Introduction 1
1.1
Justification 5
1.2
Aims and Objectives 6
CHAPTER TWO:
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW 7
2.1 Sources of Water 7
2.1.1 Surface Water 7
2.1.2 Groundwater 8
2.1.2.1 Borehole Water 9
2.2 Sources of Groundwater Pollution 10
2.3 Groundwater
Remediation 11
2.3.1 Groundwater treatment Techniques 11
2.3.1.1 Biological Treatment Technologies 12
2.3.1.2 Chemical Treatment Technologies 14
2.3.1.3 Physical Treatment Technologies 17
2.4 Pathogens Survival in Groundwater 18
2.5 Microbiological Analyses of Water 19
2.5.1 Indicator Organisms 21
2.5.1.1 Criteria for Indicator Organisms 22
2.5.1.2 Coliforms 22
2.5.1.3 Faecal Coliform 23
2.5.1.4
Escherichia coli 24
2.5.1.5
Faecal Streptococci 25
2.5.1.6
Other indicators 26
2.5.1.7 Pseudomonas
aeruginosa 27
2.6 Contaminants in Water 27
2.6.1 Microbial Contaminants 27
2.6.2 Radiological Contaminants 28
2.6.3 Organic Chemical Contaminants 28
2.6.4 Inorganic Contaminants 29
2.7 Water Treatment and Purification 29
2.7.1 Sedimentation 29
2.7.2 Aeration 29
2.7.3 Coagulation 30
2.7.4 Softening 30
2.7.5 Filtration 30
2.7.6 Adsorption 30
2.7.7 Chlorination 31
2.7.8 Sanitation Assessment of Ground Water
Quality 31
2.8 Physico-Chemical Properties of Water 32
2.8.1 Physical Properties 32
2.8.1.1 Appearance/Colour 32
2.8.1.2 Odour 33
2.8.1.3 Taste 33
2.8.1.4 Cloudiness/Turbidity 33
2.8.2 Chemical
Properties 33
2.8.2.1 Electrical Conductivity 33
2.8.2.2 pH Value 33
2.8.2.3 Temperature 34
2.8.2.4 Total
Suspended Solids (TSS) mg/l 35
2.8.2.5
Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) mg/l 35
2.8.2.6
Total Hardness 35
2.8.2.7 Carbondioxide 37
2.8.2.8 Total Alkalinity 37
2.8.2.9 Chloride 37
2.8.2.10
Sulphate 37
2.8.2.11
Nitrate 38
2.8.2.12
Oxygen 38
2.8.2.13
Calcium 38
2.8.2.14
Magnesium 38
2.8.2.15
Iron 39
2.8.2.16
Lead 39
2.9 Current Registration and Surveillance of
Drinking Water 39
2.9.1 Microbiological Aspects 39
2.9.2 World Health Organization and NAFDAC
Standards 40
CHAPTER THREE:
3.0 MATERALS AND METHODS 44
3.1 Study Area 44
3.2 Sample Collection 44
3.3 Bacteriological Water Analysis 45
3.3
1 Media Preparation 45
3.3.2 Sample Preparation 45
3.3.3 Enumeration of Bacteria Count 46
3.3.4 Isolation and Identification of
Heterotrophic Bacteria of the Water Samples 46
3.3.4.1 Cultural Examination 47
3.3.4.2
Gram Staining And Microscopic Examination 48
3.3.4.3
Test for Motility 48
3.3.5
Biochemical Tests 48
3.3.5.1
Catalase Production Test 48
3.3.5.2
Oxidase Test 49
3.3.5.3
Coagulase Test 49
3.3.5.4
Indole Test 49
3.3.5.5
Citrate Utilization Test 50
3.3.6 Test for Coliforms 50
3.3.6.1
Presumptive Test 50
3.3.6.2
Confirmed Test 51
3.3.6.3
Completed Test 51
3.4 Determination of Physico-chemical
Analyses of Borehole Water 51
3.4.1 Organoleptic or Physical Parameters of the
Borehole Samples 51
3.4.1.1 Colour Determination 51
3.4.1.2
Taste Determination 52
3.4.1.3
Odour Determination 52
3.4.2 Chemical Parameters of the Borehole Water
Samples 52
3.4.2.1 Conductivity Determination 52
3.4.2.2
pH Determination 52
3.4.2.3
Temperature Determination 53
3.4.2.4
Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) Determination 53
3.4.2.5
Total Suspended Solids 54
3.4.2.6
Sulphate (SO4) Determination 54
3.4.2.7 Total Hardness Determination (THD) 55
3.4.2.8
Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Determination 55
3.5
Statistical Analysis 56
CHAPTER FOUR:
4.0 RESULTS 57
CHAPTER FIVE:
5.0 DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 61
5.1 Discussion 61
5.2
Conclusion 64
5.3 Recommendation 65
References 66
Appendix
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE TITLE PAGE
1 Bar chart showing the mean bacterial
counts of the different waterVsample from
different locations 58
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE TITLE PAGE
1 Classification of water by hardness
content 36
2 WHO
and NAFDAC Microbiological Standards for Drinking water 41
3 WHO
and NAFDAC Physical Parameters Standards for Drinking Water 42
4 WHO and NAFDAC Chemical
Parameters Standards for Drinking Water
43
5 Biochemical
properties and cultural characteristics of bacterial isolates 58
6 Ranked means and standard deviation of
the physicochemical parameters
60
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The
health of the people depends on the quality of water available for consumption.
The health aspects of environmental quality were among the first to receive
scientific consideration through the recognition of water borne disease
(Olawuyi, 2006).Water is one of the most important and most precious natural
resources. It is essential in the life of all living organisms from the
simplest plant and microorganisms to the most complex living system known as
human body (Onifade and Ilori, 2008).
The
quality of drinking water is a powerful environmental determinant of health
(WHO, 2010). Water is the most important nutrient essential to the survival of
all humanity because it is involved in everybody function and makes up about
75% of total body wealth (Shryer, 2007); Mack and Nadel, 2011; Offei-Ansah,
2012).
Water
is fundamentally important to all plants, animals and man (Ajewole, 2005).The
ensuring of good quality drinking of water is a basic factor in guaranteeing
public health, the protection of the environment and sustainable development
(Ranjini et al., 2010).
The
provision of potable water to the rural and urban population is necessary to
prevent health hazards (Okorafor et al.,
2012).
Water
is combination of hydrogen and oxygen atoms, with a chemical formular H2O
and known to be the most compound (70%) on earth surface (Osei, 2005). And
because of the unique of the blinding, water is a solvent for many minerals and
can be referred to as a universal solvent. It can exist in three states as
liquid, gas (at 100OC) and as solid at freezing temperature of<4%
(Nelson, 2002).
Historically,
(Okonkwo et al., 2009) water scarcity
has led to severe migration and change in agricultural patterns.
In Nigeria, majority of the rural
populace do not have access to sufficient potable drinking water supply and sufficient water to maintain basic
hygiene and therefore, depend on well,
stream and river water, for domestic (Shittu et al., 2009; Owama et al.,
2013). Furthermore, 2.4 billion people lack adequate sanitation worldwide (WHO,
2003). In developed countries, thousands of children under five years die every
day due to drinking contaminated water (WHO, 2003). Thus, lack of safe drinking
water supply, basic sanitation and hygienic practices are associated with high
morbidity and mortality from excreta related diseases.
Water-borne
pathogens infect around 250 million people each year resulting in 10 to 20
million deaths worldwide. As estimated, 80% of all illness in developing
countries resulted to water and sanitation and 15% of all child deaths under
the age of five years in developing countries results from diarrhoeal diseases
(Thompson and Khan, 2003).
As
a result, most water sources are therefore unfit for consumption unless given
some forms of treatment (Welch et al.,
2000; WHO, 2007; Ajayi and Adejumo, 2011).
However,
for water to be potable it must be microbiologically safe in order to achieve
this, an approach that will eliminate pathogenic organisms from the source of
water supply must be ensured (Retra, 2002).
Water
is useful to man in many ways for example, it serves as a source of
transportation (in bringing goods from one country to another, i.e. seas,
oceans and rivers), recreation such as sporting activities (swimming, skating).
It is also used for generating electricity for domestic purpose such as
washing, cooking, bathing etc.
Since
the beginning or record history, water has been recognized as a potential
carrier of germs and diseases (Retra, 2002).
Microorganisms play a
major role in determining water quality. The most dangerous form of water
pollution are caused when faecal contaminants like Escherichia coli enters the water supply (Faparusi et al.,2011), pathogens such as Salmonella species, Shigella species, Vibro specie,
Escherichia coli that are shed into
water body through faecal contamination perpetuate many diseases (Muchuweti et al., 2006; Faparusi et al.,2011; Sanjeeda, 2012).
Studies have shown that
bacteria remain the most important causal agent of enteric disease in Nigeria.
Other causal organisms are viruses and helminthes (Raji and Ibrahim, 2011).
To
attain safe water supply for various communities, an understanding of water
that is microbiologically and chemically certified safe is therefore
imperative.
Above all, to ensure that the
microbiologically and characteristics of drinking water are satisfactory for
human consumption, the National Agency for Food and Drugs Administration and
control in association with the World Health Organization (WHO, 2003).
Recommended that the acceptable limit of coliforms in portable water for human
consumption should be zero coliforms per 100ml (0 cfu/100ml). Therefore for
technical and economic reason, analytical procedures for the detection of
harmful organisms are impractical for routine water quality surveillance common
feature of all route screening procedure is the primary analysis for indicator
organisms (Okpokwasiki and Akujuobi,1996; FAO, 1997;APHA, 1998; Cheesbrough,
2002; SCA, 2002; Prescott et al.,
2008).
Indicator
organisms are bacteria that are very common in the human and animal gut
(Chukwurah, 2001; Ibe and Okplenye, 2005; Prescott et al., 2008).
Presence
of Escherichia coli indicates
presence of faecal contamination and the possibility of contamination by
pathogenic microorganisms (EPA, 2002; Ibekwe et al., 2004; Shittu et al.,
2008).
Drinking water is tested for the
presence of two groups of bacteria; Total Coliform Bacteria and Escherichia coli Bacteria (Fecal
Coliform). Total Coliform Bacteria always present in the animal waste and
sewage but are not also found in soil and vegetation (Onuh and Isaac, 2009;
Ajayi and Adejumo, 2011; Manjula et al.,
2011) Escherichia coli bacteria are
also found in the intestinal content of warm blooded animals and tents to die
more rapidly outside the body (Prescott et
al., 2008). Consequently their presence indicates relatively recent
contamination and a warming signal that more dangerous bacteria may be present.
Water
pollution result in transmission of infectious diseases such as dysentery,
cholera, diarrhea, typhoid, shigellosis, salmonellosis and varieties of other
bacteria as well as fungi, viral and parasitic infection (Nwachukwu and Ume,
2013).
Chemical and physical parameter
includes heavy metals, trace metals, total suspended solid (TSS) and turbidity.
These trace elements present in virtually potable water, some of which play a
role in metabolism. Major ions in drinking water are correlated with palatable
mineralization that affects the quality of drinking water (Delphia et al., 2009). Some water born life threatening diseases are
also reported like cancer, hepatitis etc. because of certain highly toxic heavy metals in water
like arsenic etc. (Ayaz et al.,
2013). Many people in rural and urban communities rely on ground water as a
source of drinking water and other purpose (WHO,2003).
1.1 JUSTIFICATION
Borehole
water is a sole source of drinking water in the study area (Amaoba in Ikwuano
Local Government Area,Abia State).
People
obtain their consumable water from borehole water sources which could be
polluted by biological or chemical contaminants (Shafiq et al., 2013). There has beenreport of borehole water contamination
through many domestic waste sewage when deposited near the borehole may travel
with percolating rainwater directly into the borehole or may travel along the
well-wall or surrounding materials of the drill-hole (WHO, 2003; Obi and
Okacha, 2007). The possibilities of such contaminations justify the purpose of
this work. However, borehole water available to the public may be contaminated
in the storage tanks since the water does not undergo any form of treatment
before consumption.
Therefore, this study is intended to identify
the possible sources of contamination of borehole water in the study area and
thus proper meaningful solutions to these.
Furthermore,
to safeguard the health of the residents, it is imperative to monitor the
physiochemical and bacteriological quality of water supplies in the study area
in other to highlight the quality of water supply and to provide the impetus
for sustained government intervention (EU 1998; Adebola, 2001;Edema and Fapetu,
2001; WAN, 2012).
This
research work is exceptionally important because borehole water is the only
stable source of water in the study area supply owing to the absence of pipe
bore water.
1.2 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The
objective of the bacteriological and physico-chemical analyses of some borehole
water samples within Amaoba in Ikwuano Local Government Area Abia State
include:
·
To determine the
bacteriological qualities of some boreholes as a major source of drinking
water.
·
To determine the
physico-chemical qualities of the drinking water supply.
·
To identify possible
sources of contamination associated with such untreated water used as drinking
water.
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