BACTERIAL CONTAMINATION OF NIGERIAN CURRENCIES

ABSTARCT

Naira is the Nigerian currency used as the country’s legal tender. Naira notes handled by fish seller, meat seller and among students in Michael Okpara University of Agriculture were evaluated for microbial contaminations. Four markets, Ndoro, Ibeku Amawom and Umudike markets and Students within Umuahia metropolis were used for the study.  Four selling point and eighteen (18) denominations of naira from market with eight (8) denomination from students making a total of twenty four (24) denominations were studies covering 5,10,20,50,100,200,500 and 1000 naira denominations. The assessment involved isolation and identification of bacterial organisms on naira notes, evaluation of microbial load, and determination of the percentage (%) of occurrence of the contamination. And evaluation of the Microbial load associated with the contaminants found. A total number of 45 bacterial organisms were isolated. These organisms comprised of seven (7) bacteria genera out of which Escherichia coli (26.7%), proteus species (31.1%) ranked the highest in frequency. It was observed that some of the microbial isolates are pathogenic to human beings. The result actually show that bank notes could serve as a vehicle for transmission of pathogenic organisms. The need for improvement in the personal hygiene of meat sellers, fish sellers and careful handling of the naira notes by the public is encouraged. All the bacteria isolates show higher percentage sensitivity to streptomycin antibiotic.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title page                                                                                                                                i

Certification                                                                                                                            ii

Dedication                                                                                                                               iii

Acknowledgments                                                                                                                  iv

Table of content                                                                                                                      v

List of Tables                                                                                                                          vii

Abstract                                                                                                                                   viii

CHAPTER ONE

1.0     Introduction                                                                                                            1

1.1 Aim of the study                                                                                                               4

1.2 Objective of the study                                                                                                       4

CHAPTER TWO

2.0 Literature view                                                                                                                 5

2.1 Various Bacteria Contaminants Associated fomites                                                        11

2.1.1 Coagulase negative staphylococci (coaNs)                                                                   11

2.1.2 Klebsiella species                                                                                                          11

2.1.3 Bacillus spp                                                                                                                   12

2.1.4 Pseudomonas aeruginosa                                                                                               12

2.1.5 Proteus spp                                                                                                                     13

2.1.6 Staphylococcus aureus                                                                                                  13

2.1.7 Escherichia coli                                                                                                             14

CHAPTER THREE

3.0 Materials and methods                                                                                                      15

3.0  . Study Area                                                                                                                15

3.1 Sample Collection                                                                                                            15

3.2 Serial Dilution                                                                                                                  16

3.3 Sterilization Method                                                                                                         16

3.4 Preparation of Media                                                                                                        17

3.5 Culturing                                                                                                                           17

3.6 Microbiological Evaluation                                                                                              18

3.7 Gram Staining Technique                                                                                                18

3.8 Biochemical Analysis                                                                                                       19

3.8.1 Oxidase Test                                                                                                                  19

3.8.2 Catalase Test                                                                                                                  19

3.8.3 Motility Test                                                                                                                  20

3.8.4 Indole Test                                                                                                                     20

3.8.5 Citrate Utilization Test                                                                                                  20

3.8.6 Coagulase Test                                                                                                              21

3.8.7 Urease Test                                                                                                                    22

3.8.8 Triple Sugar Iron Test (Tsi) Test                                                                                   23

3.9 Antibiotic Susceptibility Testing                                                                                      23

CHAPTER FOUR

4.1 Results                                                                                                                              24

CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 Discussion Recommendation and Conclusion                                                                 31

5.1 Discussion                                                                                                                         31

5.2 Recommendation                                                                                                              34

5.3 Conclusion and Recommendation                                                                                   35

References

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1:  Incidence of Bacterial Contamination of Nigeria currencies

    in Umuahia Metropolis                                                                                           25

Table 2:   Morphological Characteristics of the Isolates                                                        26

Table 3:   Biochemical Characterization of Isolates                                                              27

Table 4:   Frequency of occurrence of isolates                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          28

Table 5:    Mean bacterial load of isolates (cfu/ml)                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    29

Table 6:    Antibiotic susceptibility pattern of the bacterial isolates  from

                 various Naira Notes                                                                                               30

CHAPTER ONE

1.0     INTRODUCTION

Money is an invention of the human mind or a legal tender in Nigeria and the world at large. Before the introduction of money into this world, economic exchange was practiced by barter. The barter economy, which involves the direct exchange of one good for certain amount of a different good, is a simple economy where people produce goods either for self-consumption or for exchange with other goods which they want. However, the barter system is inconvenient as it involved much effort on the part of people in trying to exchange goods for services. The naira note is a mixture of 75% cotton and 25% linen (Gadsby, 1998). This money is in general use and therefore enjoys the backing of the federal government.

Paper currency is widely exchanged for goods and services in countries worldwide (Uneke and Ogbu, 2007). In Nigeria, the currency notes are used as a medium in all sorts of trade. Many Nigerians do not care how dirty their fingers are when handling money (Mensah et al., 2002). The raw materials from which paper currencies are made also play a role in harboring high microbial load. As studies have shown, those paper currencies are made of a mixture of cotton and linen and usually offers surface area for microorganisms to reside on both sides nevertheless, polymer-based paper currencies presented lower bacterial counts than the paper currencies. The contaminated currency notes go in circulation and contaminate the hands of others transmitting pathogenic organisms in the process (Uneke and Ogbu, 2007; Mensah et al., 2002). The Nigerian currency notes are often dirty, and even mutilated notes can be seen in circulation. The survival of various microorganisms on money and their transmission via the hands of food vendors is often overlooked as enteric disease reservoir (Michaels, 2002). Pathogenic microorganisms that may survive on the Nigerian currency notes may serve as a potential source of enteropathogens causing food poisoning because in Nigeria food vendors serve food with the hands and at the same time handle currency notes as they sell (Michaels, 2002; Cardoen et al., 2009; Lamichhane et al., 2009). Such practices transfer bacteria from currency notes to humans through food (Lamichhane et al., 2009; Ministry of Health, 2007; Reither et al., 2007).

Among dirty/mutilated currency notes, bacterial contamination and fungi contamination were both significantly more pervasive (99.7% and 30.7% respectively) than they were among clean and mint currency notes. Lower denomination notes were more likely to be contaminated than were higher denomination notes, although the difference was statistically significant (p > .05). Bacterial contamination and fungal contamination were both most frequent in notes obtained from traders and transport workers. These results suggest that currency notes may be contaminated, especially with bacteria and fungi, and may serve as sources of infection. Personal hygiene to reduce risk of infection is recommended. Although most of the information presented in this project refers to situations within the Umuahia metropolis, environmental health and protection know boundaries. The environment plays a critical role in transmission to humans, with many environmental materials serving as vehicles (Anderson and May, 1997). Microbial contaminants may be transmitted directly, through hand-to-hand contact, or indirectly, via food or other inanimate objects. These routes of transmission are of great importance in the health of many populations in developing countries, where the frequency of infection is a general indication of local hygiene and environmental sanitation levels (Cooper, 1999).

The possibility that currency notes might act as environmental vehicles for the transmission of potential pathogenic microorganisms was suggested in the 1970s (Abrams and Waterman, 1972). Paper currency is widely exchanged for goods and services in countries worldwide. It is used for every type of commerce, from buying milk at a local store to trafficking in sex and drugs.

Paper currency also provides a large surface area as a breeding ground for pathogens. Money on which pathogenic microorganisms might survive represents an often overlooked reservoir for enteric disease (Michaels, 2002). In most parts of the developed world, there is a popular belief that the simultaneous handling of food and money contributes to the incidence of food-related public health incidents (Food Science Australia [FSA], 2000). Over the last two decades, data indicating that simultaneous handling could indeed be a cause of sporadic foodborne-illness cases have accumulated from studies of the microbial status and survival of pathogens on coins and currency notes in Turkey (Goktas and Oktary, 1992); the United States (Dow Jones News, 1998; India (Singh, Thakur, Kalpana, and Goel, 2002); Egypt (EI-Dars and Hasssan, 2005); China (Xu, Moore, and Millar, 2005); and Rangoon, Myanmar (Khin, Phyu, Aung, and Aye, 1989).

Oddly, publications regarding the degree to which paper money is contaminated with bacteria are few and far between, as the authors found when they conducted a Medline search in December 2005 (El-Dars and Hassan, 2005; Xu et al., 2005). Furthermore, the search found no documented study of the parasitological status of currency notes. Scientific information on the contamination of money by microbial agents is also lacking in most developing countries in sub-Saharan Africa, including Nigeria. This dearth of information may have contributed to the absence of public health policies or legislation on currency usage, handling, and circulation in many parts of Africa Although the studies done in the United States and Australia have had no major impact on policies or legislation on currency handling and circulation in those countries, they have fostered a higher level of public awareness about the potential for currency contamination by microorganisms (FSA, 2000; Michaels; Jiang and Doyle; Pope et al., 2002). In Nigeria, a whole division of the Department of Treasury deals with what is termed "mutilated currency," and the department Website boasts many examples of beleaguered, burned, buried, water-damaged money (Siddique, 2003).

An aspect of food service that frequently causes comment, particularly among enlightened consumers, is the way a food handler prepares the food, takes money for the purchase, returns change to the customer, and then prepares food for the next customer.

This pattern is most noticeable in sandwich bar operations, but is by no means restricted to outlets of that type. Anything that gets on hands can get on money. The study reported here, therefore, was designed to add to the limited body of literature on microbial contamination of currency notes and to address growing community concerns about the risks associated with microbial contamination and handling of money worldwide.

1.1 AIM OF STUDY

To evaluate the possible bacterial contaminants of Nigerian currency notes in circulation.

1.2  OBJECTIVE OF STUDY

·       To isolate and identify bacterial organisms on naira notes

·       To determine the percentage (%) occurrence of the contamination.

·       To evaluate the Microbial load associated with the contaminants

·       To determine the antibiotic sensitivity pattern of the isolates.

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