ABSTRACT
The study assessed agrochemicals use for rice production among farming households in Southeast Nigeria. Specifically, the study described the socio-economic characteristics of the farmers; examined farmers’ sources of agrochemicals; ascertained farmers’ level of accessibility of agrochemicals; determined the farmers’ level of technical knowledge in the use of agrochemicals; ascertained the extent of use of agrochemicals; examined the perceived effects of the use of agrochemicals; and examined the constraints on the use of agrochemicals. Multi-stage, purposive and random sampling techniques were used to select 240 respondents. Data were collected using structured questionnaire and were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics such as frequency counts, percentages, mean, Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) and multiple regression. Three null hypotheses were tested at 5% level of significance. The findings showed that the respondents had a mean age of 49 years, 75.0% of the respondents were males, while 25.0% were females. The results also revealed that agrochemicals were accessible ( = 3.08) by the rice farmers. Rice farmers had high technical knowledge ( = 3.84) of the use of agrochemicals. Fertilizer ( = 1.78), herbicide ( = 1.74), rodenticides ( = 0.59), insecticides ( = 0.59), fungicides ( = 0.58) and lime ( = 0.40) were lowly used for rice production. skin irritation ( = 2.54), skin rashes ( = 2.90), respiratory illness ( = 3.04), food poison ( = 3.11) and environmental pollution ( = 2.75) were the perceived effects of the use of agrochemicals on the rice farmers and rice production. High cost of agrochemicals ( = 2.62), far distance to market ( = 2.34) and high cost of spraying equipment ( = 2.31) were the severe constraints militating against rice production. The ordinary least square regression analysis revealed that years of schooling (3.624)*** and extension contact (3.153)*** had significant positive effect on the extent of use of fertilizers at 1% level of significance. Years of schooling (2.105)** and labour (2.137)** had significant effect on the extent of use of herbicides at 5% level of significance. The ANOVA result also revealed that there was significant difference in the extent of use of agrochemicals across the States. The ANOVA result also showed that there was no significant difference in the perceived effects of the use of agrochemicals on rice farmers and rice production across the States. The study concluded that agrochemicals use had positive effect on rice production in the study area. Hence, it recommends that the government and input agencies should be proactive in making agrochemicals readily accessible and affordable to rice farmers.
TABLE
OF CONTENTS
Cover
Page
Title Page i
Declaration ii
Certification iii
Dedication iv
Acknowledgements v
Table of Contents vi
List of Tables xi
List of Figures xii
List of Plates xiii
Abstract xiv
CHAPTER 1:
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study 1
1.2 Statement of the Problem 7
1.3 Research Questions 14
1.4 Objectives of the Study 15
1.5 Hypotheses of the Study 15
1.6 Justification of the Study 16
1.7 Definition of Terms 16
CHAPTER
2: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Empirical Studies 22
2.1.1 Socio-economic characteristics of users of agrochemical recommended
practices 22
2.1.2 Accessibility
of agrochemicals to farmers 23
2.1.2.1 Types of agrochemicals used by farmers 24
2.1.2.2 Banned
pesticides in Nigeria 24
2.1.3 Farmers’ knowledge of recommended
agrochemical practices 25
2.1.3.1 Post-spraying and agrochemicals disposal practices 27
2.1.3.2 Farmers’ knowledge and awareness of agrochemicals 28
2.1.3.2.1
Knowledge of farm workers regarding name, health effects, biological
and natural controls, route of agrochemicals
entry into body, and
fate of agrochemical residues 29
2.1.3.2.2 Knowledge of toxicity symptoms
among farm workers 29
2.1.3.2.3
Farm workers’ use of protective measures and their knowledge
about
those measures 30
2.1.3.2.4
Practices towards agrochemicals 31
2.1.4 Factors influencing farmers’ use of
recommended agrochemicals
practices 32
2.1.5 Consequences of non-use of recommended agrochemicals practices 33
2.1.5.1
Risks to human health 33
2.1.5.2 Risks to the environment 34
2.1.6
Farmers’ constraints to use of
recommended agrochemicals practices 36
2.1.7
Agricultural modernization and the
demand for agrochemicals 40
2.1.8 Status of rice production in South
Eastern States 42
2.1.8.1 Paddy rice production systems 44
2.1.8.2 Trends and structure of rice production 49
2.1.9 Innovative technologies on rice production in
Nigeria 53
2.1.9.1 Rice farming systems 56
2.1.9.2 Post-production loss 58
2.1.9.3 Linkage of research and extension 58
2.1.10 Constraints in rice production in Nigeria 58
2.1.10.1Pests, diseases and weeds 63
2.1.10.2
Supply-demand gap analysis 64
2.1.10.3
Overview of Nigeria’s rice sub-sector policies 67
2.1.10.3.1
Rice trade policy 69
2.1.10.3.2
Inputs subsidy policy 70
2.1.10.3.3
Public investment in agriculture 71
2.1.10.3.4
Credit policy 71
2.1.10.3.5
Land policy 72
2.1.10.3.6
Paddy rice minimum guarantee price 73
2.1.10.3.7
Farm extension service policy 73
2.2 Theoretical Framework 74
2.2.1 Theory of agricultural inputs 74
2.2.1.1 ‘Conventional’
input subsidies in agricultural development – theory
and practice 75
2.2.1.2 Resurgent interest in input subsidies 77
2.2.1.3 Soil fertility
replenishment 80
2.2.1.4 Input affordability 80
2.2.2 Risk-averse peasant theory 83
2.2.3 The top-down
(Traditional) theory 83
2.2.4
The bottom-up (Client-Oriented) theory 84
2.3 Conceptual
Framework 85
CHAPTER
3: METHODOLOGY
3.1 Research
Design 88
3.2 Area of the
Study 88
3.3 Population of the Study 89
3.4 Sample and Sampling Techniques 90
3.5 Instrument for Data Collection 91
3.6 Method of Data Collection 91
3.7 Validity of the Instrument 91
3.8 Test of
Reliability of Instrument 91
3.9 Measurement
of Variables 91
3.10 Data Analysis 94
3.11 Hypotheses
Testing 94
3.12 Model
Specification 94
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Socio-Economic Characteristics of Rice Farmers 97
4.1.1 Age 97
4.1.2 Sex 98
4.1.3 Marital status 98
4.1.4 Years of schooling 99
4.1.5 Household size (per person) 99
4.1.6 Farming experience 100
4.1.7 Access to credit 101
4.1.8 Membership of cooperative society 101
4.1.9 Type of labour 101
4.1.10 Frequency of
extension contact 102
4.2 Farmers’ Sources of Agrochemicals Use for
Rice Production in the
Study Area 104
4.3 Farmers’
Level of Accessibility to Agrochemicals Used for Rice
Production 108
4.4 Farmers’ Level
of Technical Knowledge in the Use of Agrochemicals
for Rice Production 110
4.5 Extent of Farmers’ Use of Agrochemicals for Rice
Production 113
4.6 Perceived Effects of the Use of Agrochemicals on Rice
Farmers and Rice Production 116
4.7 Constraints
on the Use of Agrochemicals among Rice Farmers in the
Study
Area 118
4.10 Tests of Hypotheses 121
CHAPTER 5 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Summary 129
5.2 Conclusion 132
5.3 Recommendations 133
References
Appendices
LIST OF TABLES
Pages
2.1 Distribution of Rice Production Systems
by States 48
3.1 Selected
States, Blocks, Circles and Number of Respondents 90
4.1 Distribution
of Farmers according to their Socio Economic Characteristics 159
4.2 Distribution of Farmers
according to Sources of Agrochemicals
use for
Rice Production 103
4.3 Distribution
of Farmers according to Accessibility to Agrochemicals
used
for Rice Production 107
4.4 Distribution
of Farmers according to their Level of Technical
Knowledge
in the Use of Agrochemicals for Rice Production 109
4.5 Mean Distribution of Respondents
according to their Level of Use of
Agrochemicals
for Rice Production 161
4.6 Distribution
according to the Perceived Effect of the Use of Agrochemicals
on
Rice Farmers and Rice Production across the States 115
4.7 Constraints
on the Use of Agrochemicals among Rice Farmers in the
Study
Area 117
4.8 Ordinary
Least Square (OLS) Multiple Regression Result of
Relationship
between Socio Economic Characteristics of Respondents and
their Use of Agrochemicals 121
4.9 Analysis of Variance Results showing Difference
in the Perceived
Effect
of the
Use of Agrochemicals on Rice Farmers and Rice Production across
the
States 124
4.10 Analysis of Variance Results showing Difference
in the Extent
of Use
of Agrochemicals across the States 126
LIST OF FIGURES
Pages
2.1 Conceptual
Framework on the Assessment of Agrochemical
Use for
Rice Production among Farming Households in South Eastern
Nigeria 86
3.1 Map of Nigeria showing the study area 90
LIST OF PLATES
Pages
1 Researcher with rice farmer at Ezeagu
Local Government Area,
Enugu
State 170
2 Researcher with rice farmers at Abakiliki, Ebonyi
State 170
3 Researcher
with fellow researchers and rice farmer at Abakiliki,
Ebonyi
State 171
4 Researcher
with rice farmer at Ikwo Local Government Area,
Ebonyi
State 171
5 Some
pesticides used for rice production in the study area 172
6 Some
herbicides used for rice production in the study area 172
7 Combination
of fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides 173
8 An
open market where agrochemicals are sold for rice production
in
the study area 173
CHAPTER
1
INTRODUCTION
1.1
BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY
Agrochemicals are used globally to make better or keep safe crops
and livestock. Fertilizers are applied to acquire good produce from crops that
are protected from insects and disease by the well timed use of pesticides.
Farm animals are likewise kept safe from parasites and diseases by veterinary therapy
such as vaccination, oral dosing or immersion dipping. The word “use” should be
interpreted in its widest sense to include the use by any person, whether
employer, worker or family, and should also include any associated activity
such as handling, storage, transport ,
spillage and disposal, (Food and Agriculture Organisation, 2016).
While population is rising and creating the need for more food, many
diseases, pests and other inhibitors of crop growth contribute to reducing crop
production. However, many types of agrochemicals have been developed to fight
these plant diseases and pests and manage the effects of inhibitors in crop
production. The introduction of these agrochemicals is, therefore, an important
farm innovation which when used by farmers can significantly
improve crop production (Lomborg, 2011).
Modern agriculture would not have
reached such high productivity without the development and usage of
agrochemicals. Agrochemicals pertain to the large varieties of pesticides,
insecticides, fertilizers, hormones, herbicides, fungicides, and other growth
chemicals (Jamala, Ari, Tsunda and Waindu, 2013). These agrochemicals are used
to improve crop productiveness, control pests, and treat or control diseases
(Omari, 2014). The use of agrochemicals contributes to the stable supply of
agricultural products as well as the healthy growth of crops and increased
farmwork productivity (Kughur, 2012).
Rice is among the oldest foods familiar to man, and it is consumed
as part of the three daily meals in some areas of the world (Adewale, 2010). Roughly three decades ago, not including areas where rice was cultivated
as traditional crop, a large number of households took rice only on Sundays or
during important festivities. Today, every household has contained rice into
their regular menu, some taking it on daily basis. Rice has therefore shifted
from being a “ceremonial” or “weekend” food in Nigeria to being part of the
normal diet (Abdullahi, 2011).
Over
50% of the world's population eats rice as a staple diet, mainly in India,
Africa, China, and other regions of Asia. Rice is one of the most significant
food crops in the world. (Daramola, 2015). Rice is a staple in the diets of a
large number of Nigerians and happen to be one of the most rapidly growing food
source. Nigeria’s rice consumption has significantly increased over the last decade
(6 – 7% per annum) and now is estimated at 6 million metric tonnes annually and
the total retail market value for rice in Nigeria is $3.6bn (Federal Ministry
of Agriculture and Rural Development (FMARD), 2012). Furthermore, FMARD (2012)
noted that rice has become a staple food of choice in both urban and rural
areas accounting for more than 20% of all meals consumed per week by a typical
household. Nigeria’s growing demand for rice is the effect of shifts in
consumer preferences driven by urbanization and changes in employment patterns.
Rice consumption in Nigeria is forecasted to reach 36 million tonnes by 2050
(FMARD, 2012).
Nigeria’s
sector for rice has witnessed some exceptional developments particularly in the
last ten years. Both the output of rice and its consumption in Nigeria have
vastly increased during this period. Rice demand in Nigeria is, however,
growing faster than for any other major staples, with consumption broadening
across all socio-economic classes, including the poor.
Farmers
have been part of rice production since early 1960s but their levels of output
remain low because of the prevalent use of indigenous technologies that have
low and declining productivity (Chukwunta and Uzoechi, 2004). This cannot
sustain the rapidly increasing population and growing demand of the people for
better living standards that include cheaper food availability on a regular
basis. The government’s awareness of this problem has led to a significant
increase in public investment in the agricultural sector over the years. The
main drive of this increased commitment has been the establishment of new
production technologies to boost the productivity of these farmers. Strategies
for increased rice production have mainly relied on intensified farming
methods, supported by high yielding rice varieties and increased use of
agrochemicals.
The
traditional system of rice production practice by small-scale farmers still
predominates, with its characteristic low technological base, high reliance on
manual labour and hence low resource productivity. Manual farm operations
impose several limits on farmers’ capacity to increase their farm sizes and are
technically inefficient and use labour intensive production tools (Oni, Nkonya,
Pender, Phillips and Kato, 2010). The food problem in Nigeria has been
exacerbated by the low level of productivity of resources used in recent times.
Increased output and productivity are directly related to improving production
efficiency which arises from efficient input usage given the state of
technology (Maurice, 2014). The surge in agricultural growth rates experienced
in recent years has been powered mainly by expansion in areas planted to staple
crops. Productivity has virtually remained unchanged and yields of most crops
have actually declined in the past decade (Ojehomon, et.al 2010). On the other hand, the domestic demand for rice in
particular is growing faster than for any other major staples, with consumption
outstripped local production.
Agrochemical
is considered a vital component of modern farming, playing a major role in
maintaining high agricultural productivity (Popp, Peto, and Nagy,
2013).
Agrochemicals
are important agricultural inputs to protect crops from diseases, pests and
weeds. The use of agrochemicals contribute not only to healthy growth of rice
but also to improve farm work efficiency and stable supply of agricultural
produce (Kughur, 2012). Agrochemicals
are chemicals used to boost Agricultural production, specifically rice
production (Sekhotha, Monyeki and Sibuyi, 2018). They are used as soil conditioners, acidifiers, nutrients and are
also used to control diseases caused by bacteria, fungi, pests and viruses,
enhancing agricultural productivity and safety
(Pearce, 2018). Factors such as balanced use, optimum dosing, correct
application methods and timing help ensure increased rice productivity (Bhandari, 2018). Use of agrochemicals has led
to increased rice production (Popp
et al., 2013; Alexandratos, and Bruinsma,
2018). Agrochemicals
are looked upon as a vehicle for improved crop production technology though
they are costly input.
With the use of agrochemicals,
farmers are able to produce bigger and more rice on less land with efficient
production of the food process contributing to high agricultural productivity
thereby maximizing profit. The benefits of the use of agrochemicals are not
only confined to its farmers but to the majority of the people across the
world. Because of this, agrochemicals will still be used for many decades to
ensure food supply (Wang and Liu, 2007). It will improve food safety and
quality, increase in profit, and even improve human health by eliminating pests
and diseases.
Since the early development of agricultural practices, people have
always sought different ways to increase their crop yield. Notable are the use
of organic and inorganic fertilizers, insecticides, fungicides, herbicides,
thuricides (for soil worms) and improved cultivars. The early use of pesticides
included a variety of substances such as urine, lime-soap suds, vinegar,
tobacco, and similar simple compounds (Tuormaa, 2015).
Pesticide,
a damage control input to safeguard from insects and other pests, is considered
to improve nutrition in food, and its use is assumed an economic,
labour-saving, and efficient tool for pest management (Damalas and
Eleftherohorinos, 2011). Furthermore, pesticide is believed to improve
competitive advantage in agriculture (Delcour, Spanoghe and Uyttendaele, 2015).
This is because pesticide use is deemed essential for retaining current
production and yield levels, as well as maintaining a high-quality standard of
life (Rahman,2013). There is a widespread acceptance that the use of modern
agricultural technologies has led to a sharp increase in pesticide use, along
with other modern inputs, in the developing economies (Rahman, 2013). However,
there is a widespread claim that pesticides are harmful to human health and the
environment (Hou and Wu, 2010).
However, exposure to other organisms during their application,
including humans, is poorly controlled (Damalas
and Eleftherohorinos, 2011). Their use has significantly increased the concentration of toxic
materials in food and the environment, with negative effects on plant and
animal health (Tago, Andersson, and Treich, 2014). The World Health Organization (WHO) has estimated that more than
three million farmers in developing countries are poisoned by agrochemicals
each year (World Health Organization, 2010).
Agrochemicals are used extensively in modern farming; hence it is
almost impossible to avoid daily exposure to low levels of different ones.
There is now a great concern about the possible adverse effects on human health
arising from continuous long term exposure (Employers’
Federation of Ceylon, 2016). According
to Sarnar (2012),
agricultural workers run at least twice the risk of dying on the job than
workers in other sectors. In a global overview prepared for a recent conference
on farm safety and health, (International Labor Organization (ILO), 2014)
reported that tens of thousands of agricultural workers die each year, and
millions suffer injuries or poisoning from agrochemicals. Most of the time,
exposure to agrochemicals also constitute another risk of farm workers
accounting in some countries for as much as 14% of all occupational injuries in
the agricultural sector and 10% of all fatalities.
Safety
and health in the use of agrochemicals has been one of the primary concerns of
international organisations and of many governments, employers and workers and
their organisations for over two decades. Some agrochemicals such as pesticides
are extremely hazardous to the health of workers and the general public, and
also to the environment. However, they can be used safely if proper precautions
are taken. Many industrially developed countries therefore enforce strict
regulations with regard to the production, sale and use of pesticides, the most
hazardous group among agrochemicals (ILO, 2014).
All
those who are responsible for the production, import, storage and sale of
agrochemicals have a role to play in ensuring safety and health in their use.
International organisations, governments, employers and workers and their
organisations, and community leaders have a fundamental role: educating
agrochemical users on the hazards of the substances they handle, how these
enter the body, the nature of toxic effects and the proper methods of use, and
informing them of the duties and responsibilities of government authorities,
other organisations and the public (ILO, 2014).
Agrochemical
users must make every effort to use those products that minimise the risk to
themselves and others. In the choice of agrochemicals, they may often be guided
by advertisements in the mass media. It is therefore important that users seek
advice from agricultural extension workers and several independent suppliers (Sarnar 2012). Similarly, choice of
safe technology is important. For example, there may be several types of spray
equipment on the market, but the cheapest ones are often not the best for
safety. They may be of poor quality and might start to leak. The same may be
true of the choice of personal protective equipment or safety devices. Again,
users should remember to seek advice.
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Modern
commercial agricultural practices involving agrochemical inputs such as
fertilizers, pesticides and others have been associated with huge increases in
food production never witnessed before. However, the high usage of these
agrochemicals used to bring about these increases in food production is not
without problems (WHO, 2012). A visible parallel correlation between higher
productivity, high artificial input use and environmental degradation and human
health effects is evident in many countries including Nigeria where commercial
agriculture is widespread. The high usage of these agrochemical inputs has
caused numerous pollution problems impacting on human health, agricultural
lands, other production processes, wildlife and the environment in general. The
fertilizers (mainly nitrogenous) used have polluted the surface and ground
water, with disruptive effects on the environment and on human health.
Agricultural scientists have established a link between increases in
nitrogenous fertilizers and the proliferation of pests of rice. Pesticides,
too, have affected the environment, other production processes, human beings
and caused numerous occupational health hazards including deaths.
Most agrochemicals are toxic and can
pose some dangers to human health (WHO, 2011); hence, their use is highly
regulated internationally, nationally and regionally, with regulations and
conventions (PAR, 2010; FAO/WHO, 2012). It is threatening however that,
agrochemicals such as Atrazine, Aldrin, DDT, Paraquat, Alachlor, among others that
have been banned for decades in the European Union (EU) and United States of
America (USA) are still used extensively in many developing countries
(Machipisa, 2016; International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC),
2010) by local farmers to control pests and diseases of field crops and food
products. Local farmers also have little or no knowledge on how, when and how
often to apply agrochemicals on their crops; the consequence of which is the
destruction of entire crop fields, polluting water bodies and putting human
health and the environment at risk (Ntow, 2014).
Incidentally, many farmers who use
these agrochemicals do not know much about the dangers associated with them and
hence end up tasting to determine their potency while also failing to protect
themselves during their application. Though some stored farm produce are
treated with few agrochemicals, most of the chemicals are frequently applied on
field crops. As a result of continuous application and misuse of agrochemicals,
the fertility status of farm lands is getting worse year after year; many
insects and their predators are destroyed, and others have evolved resistant
strains (Tanzubil, 2014). It is also of advantage noting that, despite the
incessant use of agrochemical products by farmers, 20-40% of potential food
production is still lost every year to pests and diseases (Obeng-Ofori, 2015).
Therefore, a sufficient dependable food provision cannot be assured with the
use of agrochemical products alone.
Many farmers in Nigeria and in many
other developing countries rely heavily on agrochemicals in their quest to
produce food crops and vegetables. However, the concern of this study is
whether the farmers have adequate understanding of the beneficial and harmful
effects associated with such chemicals use, in a manner that will ensure that
they pay utmost attention to the recommended practices.
In a market and farm survey by Laary
(2012), various kinds of agrochemical products including herbicides,
insecticides, fungicides, fumigants, fertilizers and plant growth regulators or
hormones were found with agrochemical dealers. He reported that some of the
agrochemicals found with market dealers had their labels scrapped off; others
were expired and/or banned, whilst others were transferred into different
containers. Those that had their labels scraped off or transferred into
different containers were difficult to identify. He further reported that
farmers were rarely given advice or instructions by the dealers on how to
handle and use the agrochemicals when buying them because most of the dealers
know little, or nothing about the agrochemical products they sell to farmers.
The circumstance was further heightened by the factuality that most farmers who
buy these agrochemicals know virtually nothing on the possible dangers
associated with their use. Hence, farmers’ knowledge about approved
agrochemical doings can be best described as grossly inadequate. Therefore,
apart from the possibility of using an expired product, most of them may not
formulate the agrochemicals well before applying them and may therefore not
achieve the desired results from their application.
The aim of farmers for applying
agrochemicals on their crops is either to enhance growth or control pests and
diseases that threaten the survival and yield potential of their crops (Hill
and Waller, 2012). Various pests and disease symptoms were mentioned by the
farmers and identified with them on their crops (Laary, 2012). This implies
some level of knowledge about pest and disease symptoms since farmers were able
to identify the various pests and diseases which they believe constitute
economic loss to them.
Some of the chemical products used
by the farmers have residues which can be retained on crops and vegetables for
extended periods (Kleter, Harris, Stephenson and Unsworth,2013). Research also
has it that, there is gradual cumulative evidence of increasing human
vulnerability to agrochemicals and chemically applied food products (Ntow,
2014; Amoah, Drechsel, Abaidoo and Ntow,2015; Smith, Corvalan and
Kiellstrom,2013). The findings of Laary (2012) revealed that some farmers have
reasons necessitating numerous chemical applications while majority of them do
not know why they keep applying agrochemicals. To them, treating the crop
continuously with agrochemicals is a common practice to maximize yield and
attract good market prices; because both leaves and fruits will be free of
insect and disease infestation and will be more appealing and attractive to the
consumer.
There is widespread recognition that
farmers misuse agrochemicals while protecting rice crops from incidences of
pests and diseases (Laary, 2012). However, despite the advantages of
agrochemicals, the risks and drawbacks of its use are far outweighed its
benefits. The effect of the agrochemicals applied could result in the reduction
of biodiversity and ecological balance of an area, (Epstein and Bassein, 2013).
In
spite of their commonness and immeasurable use, crucial concerns about health
risks occurring from the subjection of farmers when putting together and
applying agrochemicals or working in the fields that are treated and from agrochemical
settlings on food and in drinking water for the large population have been
raised (Dabady and Tulk, 2015). These health risks can influence farmer’s
ability to fully utilize farm inputs at their disposal and this can translate
into lower level of technical efficiency. Farmers’ health influences the
agricultural system since poor health leads to decrease in farm workers’
capability and reduces their ability to explore and adopt innovation and this
in turn reduces their level of efficiency (Munongo and Chitungo, 2013). In
addition, family time is diverted to caring for the sick farmers and it could
also lead to loss of savings and assets in the course of dealing with diseases
and its consequences.
Use of different agrochemicals like
pesticides and conventional fertilizers exists in wetlands that are mostly
converted into rice paddies. Wetlands, which are considered useful ecosystems
have been exploited for the water source, land encroachment, pollution inputs,
and reclamation or land conversion. The run-off of agricultural chemicals into
the surface water bodies of wetlands can cause an increase of productivity of
those aquatic ecosystems leading to eutrophication or the excessive richness of
nutrients in an aquatic ecosystem due to runoff from nearby land. This can
cause a dense growth of plant life and death of animal life from lack of
oxygen.
Nitrates and fertilizers may seep into sources of drinking
water, and pesticides may contaminate river water or be carried as spray drift
onto public land. Unfortunately, the public is more aware about the benefits of
agrochemical application than about the harm that misuse can cause (International Labour Organization (ILO), 2014). The pertinent question to
ask now is that “are rice farmers aware of the high risk due to inadequate
education, training and safety devices in use of agrochemicals?” (Sarna, 2012).
After harvesting and during storage, most grains are doused again
with several chemicals to protect them from pests and diseases. It has been
estimated that grain crops receive approximately 5 – 8 pesticide applications
per growing season. Thus,
continued use of the same pesticide can trigger the pest to become resistant.
Several problems in relation to pesticide use have been contemplated but the
future trend in use of most of these compounds in agriculture to treat plant
disease will obviously not decrease, (Tuormaa,
2015).
Due to the wrong use and poor handling of agrochemicals by some
rice farmers in South East Nigeria, the farmers are exposed to these chemicals
when they are used during rice cultivation such as insecticides, herbicides,
rodenticides, fertilizers and fungicides. Furthermore, available literatures
as well as field experiences from various practitioners indicated a
demand-supply system that just emerged by chance, which is hence not perfect
but characterized by adulteration, use of expired agrochemicals as well as
inefficiency in usage, improper storage, bad (high) retailing prices, and lack
of safety measures (Laary, 2012; Zyoud, et.al
2010). To minimize the hazards caused
by wrong use or poor handling of agrochemicals, Udoh, (2014) advocates that
banned agrochemicals not be imported, recommended ones be available all year
round at affordable prices, while consistent educational campaign should be
directed at the rice farmers. The problem of poor handling and wrong use of
agrochemicals is still rampant among Southeast Nigerian rice farmers, making
them victims of frequently occurring chemical accidents. Much of the
educational campaign effort to mitigate this problem still lies with the field
extension agents.
Currently, many agrochemical users in Southeast Nigeria are not
properly informed of the risks and precautions involved in the application of
toxic agrochemicals. As revealed by Damalas and Eleftherohorinos (2018), few
studies have been conducted on agrochemical use in Nigeria. Maton, Dodo, Nelsla
and Ali (2018); Tijani and Sofoluwe (2018); Abubakar, Mala, Mumin, Zainab and
Fatima (2018); and Ojo (2018) studies showed evidence of a relationship between
farmers' exposure to agrochemicals and illiteracy. Due to the toxic hazardous
nature of agrochemicals, it is crucial that measures be taken to ensure the
safety of farmers.
Agrochemicals are used by farmers in
Southeast Nigeria to increase rice production. However, farmers do not follow
precautions for their usage and application, increasing the risk of exposures
to humans and the environment. Southeast is graced with vast arable land and
human resources for rice production. However, it seems that rice farmers in
Southeast have not been able to explore all these favourable variables to
achieve desirable increase in rice yield (Umeh and Chukwu, 2015). This could be
due to some problems such as the inability of the farmers to use agrochemicals,
and other technologies and poor socioeconomic background of the farmers as asserted
by Onumadu and Osahon, (2014).
Despite appreciable farmer awareness
of the toxicity of agrochemicals, irregular hygienic practices and rare use of
protective clothing result in greater levels of exposure for equivalent
agrochemical use in developing countries compared to developed countries (Cole,
Fernando and Ninfa, 2011). A study in Ecuador found that although more than 70%
of the farmers interviewed agreed that agrochemicals cause serious human health
problems and also 81% of them read agrochemical warning labels correctly, yet
the farm workers used little or no protection against exposure during spraying
operations, apart from rubber boots (Crissman, Cole and Carpio, 2010). A study
in northern Greece (Damalas, Georgiou and Theodorou, 2016) showed that almost
all farmers were aware that pesticides can potentially impact negatively on
users, but about half of farmers interviewed did not use any special protective
equipment when spraying pesticides. Similar results have also been reported
among pesticide applicators in India (Mancini, van Bruggen, Jiggins, Ambatipudi
and Murphy, 2015).
Labour is a critical resource in agricultural production. Agrochemical have been found to be a labour saving technology since
they help to reduce energy expenditure as well as the risk of farm injury (Otto
2015). The most important benefit of using pesticides and herbicides are
economical, comprising yield and quality of crops and decrease of other inputs
like labour and fuel (Damalas, 2009). The general public is becoming increasingly
aware about agrochemical use. This is because the effects of such use are not
always confined to the area of land treated. However,
the extent of the use of agrochemicals and the perceived effects on the use of
agrochemicals among rice farmers in Southeast Nigeria are apparently unknown,
hence, the study.
From the foregoing, it thus becomes imperative to assess
the agrochemicals use for rice production among farming households in the
Southeast, Nigeria.
1.3
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
The following are the research
questions posed to guide the study:
i.
what are the
socio-economic characteristics of the farmers?;
ii.
what are the farmers’ sources
of agrochemicals use for rice production?;
iii.
what are the farmers’
level of accessibility of agrochemicals needed for rice production?;
iv.
what is the
level of technical knowledge in the use of agrochemicals for rice production?;
v.
what is the
extent of use of agrochemicals for rice production?;
vi.
what is the perceived
effects of the use of agrochemicals on rice farmers and rice production?; and
vii.
what are the constraints
on the use of agrochemicals among rice farmers in the study area?
1.4
OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The
broad objective of the study is to assess the agrochemicals use for rice
production among farming households in Southeast, Nigeria.
The specific objectives were to:
i.
Describe the
socio-economic characteristics of rice farmers;
ii.
examine farmers’ sources
of agrochemicals use for rice production;
iii.
ascertain farmers’ level
of accessibility of agrochemicals needed for rice production;
iv.
determine farmers’
level of technical knowledge in the use of agrochemicals for rice production;
v.
ascertain the
extent of use of agrochemicals for rice production;
vi.
examine the perceived
effects of the use of agrochemicals on rice farmers and rice production; and
vii.
examine the
constraints on the use of agrochemicals among rice farmers in the study area.
1.5
HYPOTHESES OF THE STUDY
The hypotheses of the study include:
H01: There is no significant
relationship between socio-economic characteristics of the respondents and their use of
agrochemicals.
H02: There is no significant difference in the perceived effects
of the use of agrochemicals on rice farmers and rice production across the
States.
H03: There is no significant
difference in the extent of use of agrochemicals across the States in Southeast,
Nigeria.
1.6
JUSTIFICATION FOR THE STUDY
Essentially, the data generated from
this study should serve as a basis for understanding how recommended
agrochemical practices are being use in the country. This can be used for
making appropriate policy.
Stakeholders in agrochemicals use
and handling stand to benefit a lot from this study. To policy makers, result
of this study can guide policy directions geared towards local production and
enforcement of regulatory rules particularly with respect to importation, sales
(including price) and distribution of agrochemicals. The research institutes will
be able to pick up the challenges posed to farmers in using spraying apparels
and equipment. The knowledge of the factors influencing the use of
agrochemicals can be useful to modify and improve extension especially in
providing effective training and supervision for farmers and to properly
re-orient them on the use of safety/protective devices. NGOs and private
organizations too can leverage on the findings of this study to address some of
the constraints on the use of agrochemicals as exposed by this study. The
knowledge of the consequences of non-use of agrochemicals can also assist the
farmers to create a change of mind by endorsing the recommended practices and
use them efficiently to promote their personal safety, guard failure and
protect the environment.
1.7
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Agrochemical: can
be defined as any chemical substance or mixture of substances intended to
improve production of rice and for preventing, destroying, repelling, or
mitigating the effect of any pest and disease of rice. They include pesticides
such as herbicides, insecticides, rodenticides, fungicides, molluscides,
nematicides, avicides, repellents and attractants as well as fertilizers.
Rice:
Rice is an increasingly important crop in the study areas. It is relatively
easy to produce and is grown for sale, for home consumption and as luxury food
for special occasions only.
Rice production:
Rice production in the study areas is the act of cultivating the lands to grow
rice with the aid of various agricultural activities like land clearing,
planting rice seeds, application of fertilizer, weeding, harvesting, threshing,
and application of best agronomic practices.
Farming: is
the activity or business of growing crops and raising livestock.
Farming households: is
referred to the family members, reference persons or main income earners that
are economically active in farming activities or business.
Rice farming: is
the cultivation of rice plant for human consumption. It is grown from the seed
of the grass specie Oryza sativa (Asian rice) or Oryza glaberrima
(African rice).
Rice farming household: is
referred to the family members or income earners that are economically active
in rice farming activities or business.
Hazardous effect:
refers to the harmful effects of agrochemicals on rice farmers and rice
production.
Rice output: refers
to the quantity of rice produced per hectare by rice farmers in the study area.
Rice nursery:
refers to the cultivation or raising of rice seedlings in beds before their
eventual transplantation in beds with practical proportions that have been
created by raising the soil to a certain height.
Organic fertilizer:
refers to fertilizer that is derived from organic sources including organic
compost, cattle manures, poultry droppings, and household sewage that can be added
to soil to supply nutrients and support growth.
Inorganic fertilizer:
refers to artificial or synthetic fertilizer used to increase soil fertility
that is created from minerals or synthetic substances or elements.
Lime:
refers to alkaline substance used to reduce soil acidity and improve soil
fertility.
Insecticides: refers
to inorganic and organic substances applied or used primarily to kill insects
or eliminate disease-carrying insects in rice farms.
Rodenticides:
refers to pesticides or chemicals that kill rodents that cause harm on rice
farms.
Fungicides:
refers to pesticides used to kill parasitic fungi or spores that inhibit rice
growth.
Herbicides: are
agrochemicals administered either prior to, during or after planting to
manipulate or control undesirable vegetation growth on the rice farms.
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