ABSTRACT
The study investigated the access and use of agrochemical among women farmers. The following objectives guided the study which were to; examine the socioeconomic characteristics of the women farmers, ascertain the farmers awareness of agrochemicals, determine the types and sources of agrochemicals available to the farmers, ascertain the level of access to agrochemicals by the respondents, ascertain the extent of use of agrochemicals by farmers, ascertain farmers’ perceived effect of agrochemical use on agricultural production, and determine the constraints to the use of agrochemical by the farmers. The study made use of a multi-stage sampling procedure in selecting 180 respondents for the study. Data for the study were realized using a structured questionnaire. The data collected were analyzed using both descriptive and inferential statistics, such as frequency and regression analysis. The major results showed that 70% were aware of the chemical for the control of insect pest, 71.1% were aware of the chemical for the control of weeds, 53.4% were aware of chemical for the control of weeds before planting, 67.6% were aware of the chemical for the control of weeds after planting while, 68.9% were aware of the right fertilizer to use for their crops. Decis (69.97%), Attack (65.53%) and Profexsupe (38.87%) had the largest proportion on the record of availability of agrochemicals by the women farmers. Most (97.8) of the respondents bought and would buy their agrochemicals from the Open Market. The grand mean of 2.53 affirmed that respondents had high level of access to agrochemicals. Furthermore, the grand mean of 1.94 affirmed that the respondents generally had a low extent of use of agrochemicals. The respondents had a positive perception on the use of agrochemicals as affirmed with the grand mean of 2.54. The constraints faced by the respondents were inadequate access to capital (88.8%), unavailability of agrochemicals (78.8%), poor extension service (72.2%) and lack of safety measures (59.4%). The result of hypothesis one showed that there was a significant relationship between access and use of agrochemicals at 5% level of probability. The result of hypothesis two showed that tenure (1%), farm size (1%), level education (1%) and farming experience (5%) were the determinants of extent of use of agrochemicals in the study area. The study concluded that access to agrochemical usually influence the extent of use of agrochemicals. It is therefore recommended that; Farmers should form cooperative in order to pool resources together to solve their problem, especially as it relates to accessing needed agrochemicals and Government should do well in developing policies that will ensure increased access to credit and arable land for our women farmers. There should be proper orientation from extension agencies, both government and private on the safety measures in the use of agrochemicals to curb the hazardous effects of agrochemicals.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Page i
Declaration ii
Certification iii
Dedication iv
Acknowledgements v
Table of Contents vi
List of Tables x
List of Figures xi
Abstract xii
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Background Information 1
1.2 Problem Statement 3
1.3 Research
Questions 5
1.4 Objectives of the Study 5
1.5 Hypotheses of the Study 6
1.6 Justification of the Study 6
1.7 Definition of Terms 7
1.7 Limitations
of the Study 9
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE
REVIEW 10
2.1 The Concept of Assessment 10
2.2 The Concept of Agrochemical 11
2.3 Classification of Agrochemicals 15
2.3.1 Chemical nature 15
2.3.2 Other classifications of pesticides 17
2.3.3 Application methods 19
2.3.4 Precautional measures while using
agrochemical 20
2.3.5 Historical development of agrochemical in agriculture. 25
2.3.6 Value/benefit of agrochemicals 28
2.3.7 Agrochemical use and agricultural production 32
2.4 The
Concept of Gender 33
2.4.1 Relevance of gender in agriculture 34
2.4.2 Gender mainstream 35
2.5 Women and Agricultural Production 36
2.5.1 Nigerian women and food production 37
2.5.2 Nigeria’s women-in-agriculture
program 40
2.6 The
Role of Rural Women in Agriculture 42
2.7 Women and Access to Farm Inputs 46
2.8 Constraints Faced by Women Farmers 47
2.8.1
Inadequate access to agricultural
extension information 48
2.8.2
Inadequate access to land 48
2.8.3
High illiteracy rate 49
2.8.4 Inadequate access to credit facilities and
other inputs 51
2.9 Empirical
Studies 51
2.10 Theoretical
Framework 53
2.10.1 Perception theory 54
2.10.2
Adoption theory 55
2.11 Conceptual Framework 58
CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 62
3.1
Study Area 62
3.2 Population
of the Study 65
3.3 Sampling
Procedure and Sample Size 65
3.4 Method
of Data Collection 65
3.5 Validity
of Instrument 65
3.6 Reliability
of Instrument 65
3.7 Measurement
of Variables 66
3.8 Method
of Data Analyses 68
3.9 Hypotheses Testing 70
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND
DISCUSSION 72
4.1 Socioeconomic Characteristics of the
Women Farmers in Abia State. 72
4.1.1 Age 72
4.1.2.
Marital status 72
4.1.3 Level of education 73
4.1.4
Annual farm income 73
4.1.5
Extension contact 73
4.1.6
Cooperative membership 74
4.1.7 Household size 74
4.1.8 Farming experience 75
4.1.9 Access to credit 75
4.2
Assessment of Respondents’ Awareness
of Agrochemicals 77
4.3 Assessment of the Types of Agrochemicals
Available to Women Farmers in
the Study Area 79
4.4
Assessment of the Sources of Agrochemicals Available to the Women
Farmers. 81
4.5 Assessment of the Level of Access to
Agrochemicals by the Women Farmers 83
4.5.1 Assessment of the extent of use of
agrochemicals by the women farmers. 85
4.6 Farmers’ Perceived Effect of the use of
Agrochemicals on Agricultural
Production 88
4.7
Farmers’ Constraints to the Use of
Agrochemicals in Agricultural Production 90
4.8
Hypotheses Testing 93
4.8.1
Hypothesis 1 93
4.8.2 Hypothesis
2 95
CHAPTER 5: SUMMARY,
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 97
5.1
Summary 97
5.2
Conclusion 100
5.3
Recommendations 101
References
Appendices
LIST
OF TABLES
PAGE
2.1 List
of Agrochemicals Disseminated by the ADP to Farmers in Abia State 14
4.1: Socioeconomic
Characteristics of the Women Farmers in Abia State 76
4.2: Awareness
of Agrochemicals Use Among Women Farmers in the Study Area 78
4.3: Types
of Agrochemicals Available to Women Farmers. 80
4.4: Sources
of Agrochemicals Available to the Women Farmers 82
4.5: Mean
Scores Distribution of Women Farmers According their Level of
Access to Agrochemicals. 84
4.6: Distribution of Women Farmers According
their Extent of Use of Agrochemicals. 87
4.7: Distribution of Women farmers’ Perception
of the Effect of use of
Agrochemicals
on Agricultural Production. 89
4.8: Percentage
Distribution of Constraints to the Use of Agrochemicals. 92
4.9: Simple Regression Estimate of the Effect of Access to
Agrochemicals on
the
Extent of Use of Agrochemicals. 94
4.10: Estimate of the Relationship Between Selected Socioeconomic
Characteristics
of the Respondents and the Use of Agrochemicals 96
LIST
OF FIGURES
1: Conceptual
Framework of the study 61
2: The
map of Abia State the study area, showing the17 Local Government
Areas. 64
CHAPTER
1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Agriculture was created to deliver
harvests and animals for human utilization. As the human populace expands, the
measure of sustenance created is significant. However as noted by Odurukwe, et al. (2016), the sustainable
production of food is the first pillar of food security. A major threat to food
security is crop losses due to pests' invasion and soil infertility. Henry (2013) stated that crop losses due to
pests' invasion and soil infertility are serious threats in both developed and
developing countries. Because of this high misfortune in nourishment creation,
agrochemicals (pesticides) are frequently used to battle the issue.
Agrochemical is a typical term incorporating different compound items that are
utilized in rural exercises.
In most cases, it alludes to the wide
scope of pesticides including bug sprays, herbicides, and fungicides. It might
likewise incorporate engineered composts, hormones and other synthetic
development operators just as concentrated stores of crude creature fertilizer.
Most of pesticides are utilized to control vermin's attack and control of
vectors of human and creature illnesses (Ecobichon, 2001). As such, the addition
of chemical pesticides and synthetic fertilizers among farmers has been adopted
as essential tools to control the scourge and thus reduce pests' infestation on
the crops and thus increase yields (Bhanti and Taneja, 2007).
The improvement in crop yield which is
fostered by pesticides and fertilizers application is sometimes associated with
the occurrence and persistence of pesticide and nutrients residues in the soil
and water (Ware and Whitacre, 2014). The deficiency of agrochemicals in farming
can lead to reduction in the yield or productivity of crops, reduction in the
quality of crops. It can also cause malformation of parts of plants or whole
plants (that is an abnormal formation), kill or cause the death of a whole
plant, render crop unattractive and unmarketable especially vegetables and
fruits. When all these happen, they can result to the reduction in the income
of the farmer (Iwena, 2012).
However,
poor access to information is a major limiting factor to adoption of
innovations including the use of agrochemicals. In this regard, mass media can
greatly be used in educating farmers. It is the least expensive and the most
effective way of informing farmers of new developments or information as the
ratio of extension agent to farmers in Africa is poor, making extension workers
to reach an insignificant number of projected clientele (Nwachukwu, 2017).
Women
contribute directly to the gross domestic products (GDP) of the nation and
particularly to agricultural production and the overall national food security
(Ekong, 2010). According to Onyemobi (2010), a great many ladies function as
ranchers, ranch laborers and normal asset chiefs. Brown, et al. (2001) noticed that in doing as such, they add to national
rural yield, upkeep of the earth and family sustenance security. The number of
women in agricultural production and post-harvest activities range from 20% to
70%, their participation is rising in many growing countries. (Green facts on
health and environment, 2016). According to FAO (2011), women are responsible
for over half the world's food production. In developing countries, women
produce between 60-80% of the nourishment and are likewise the principle makers
of the world's staple harvests, (for example, rice, wheat, maize), which has
gone along way in controlling food scarcity.
Women
are much increasingly predominant in the creation of vegetables and vegetables
in little plots, and they likewise raise poultry and little creatures and give
the massive majority of the work to post-reap exercises, for example,
stockpiling, dealing with and handling of grains. As indicated by Ani, et al (2010), women assume real jobs in
key cultivating activities, for example, planting, weeding and harvesting.
Women farmers are involved in some of these
conventional male agricultural tasks such as land clearing, heaping and staking
of yam vines in addition to carrying out traditional female activities in the
household. Ekong, (2010) stated that the Nigeria’s rural economy as well as its
urban food security are largely sustained by women farmers. He enumerated some
of the activities of women farmers as land preparation for farming, planting of
crops and vegetables for house hold consumption, weeding, harvesting, processing
of harvested crops and storage etc. Tumusiime, (2014) said that ladies assume a
transcendent job in African agriculture, and that they emerge as mainstays of
financial development, particularly with regards to agriculture and
agro-business which dominate rural economics throughout Africa.
Therefore,
meeting world nourishment needs later on will depend progressively on tending
to issues identified with sexual orientation and on fortifying the capacities
and assets of ladies. A few investigations have revealed the view of ranchers
on the utilization of agrochemicals as being harmful although resulting in high
yield for any agricultural production (Ekwe and Osuagwu, 2016; Issa et al, 2015).
However,
this study seeks to assess the extent of use amid women farmers in
consideration n of the various perceived effects of use, advantages and
disadvantages of the adding agrochemicals to crop production in Abia State. The
main aim of this research work is to evaluate the use of agrochemical among
women farmers in Abia state.
1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT
In
Nigeria, women are the core participants in providing most of the work in
agricultural production (World bank, 2013).With vast input of women to food
production nevertheless are restricted by a number of factors among which is
the cause for enquiry to their right to farm inputs such as credits, lands and
sort other means to get other farm inputs like agrochemicals (Odemelam, 2014).
Studies
carried out by Mohammed (2012), on women in horticulture in Gombe, Nigeria, the study revealed that participation of women
was more in various production and post-production activities of vegetables
than fruits and flowers. FAO (2010) reported that giving women the same entry
as men to agricultural resources could raise production on women's farms in growing
countries by 20 to 30 percent. This could raise total agricultural production
in developing countries by 2.5 to 4 percent, which could in turn decrease the
number of hungry people in the world by 12 to 17 percent, or 100 to 150 million
people.
According
to Bello, et al. (2010), agro-chemicals such as inorganic fertilizers,
pesticides and herbicides are of great important to agricultural production
because they eradicate drudgery, influx of cost operation, problem of lack of
labour and enhance both quality and quantity of production. Cunningham, (2014)
stated that agrochemical is used for controlling weeds, pest, fungi infected
crops so as to improve yields and good quality crops. Jamala, et
al, (2013), in their study stated that agro-chemicals do not affect farm income, that they have positive
impact on farm income.
Lami
and Abraham (2013) reported that most farmers in Makurdi perceived that use of
agrochemicals was abused and that they can damage the environment. Respondents
in the study area did not appear to have sufficient knowledge of the safety
implications of agrochemicals. In a survey conducted by on the evaluation of
the use of agrochemicals by farmers in Esan land, Edo State, Nigeria. It was
found that Agrochemical use among farmers in general has not been significant,
as to increase Agricultural output.
It
is therefore base on the fact that agrochemical use play a very huge role in
agricultural production (food) that deems it necessary to assess the extent
women farmers have taken advantage of the usefulness of agrochemicals
disseminated by Abia state ADP in improving agricultural production. However,
the level of access to agrochemicals and the extent of use of agrochemicals
among women farmers in Abia State is unknown. Based on the foregoing, this
study focused on the assessment of access and use of agrochemicals disseminated
by the ADP Abia State to farmers with particular interest in the women farmers.
1.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
These
research findings sought answers to the following research questions:
1. What
are the socio-economic characteristics of the women farmers in the study area?
2. Are
the women farmers aware of agrochemical?
3. What
are the types and sources of agrochemical in the study area?
4. How
do the women farmers in the study area access the agrochemical?
5. To
what extent do the women farmers use agrochemical?
6. What
is the perceived effect of agrochemical use on agricultural production?
7. What
are the limitations faced by women in the use of agrochemicals?
1.4 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The general objective of the study
was to investigate access and use of agrochemicals among women farmers in Abia
State, Nigeria.
Precisely, the study sought to;
i.
examine the
socio-economic characteristics of the respondents;
ii.
ascertain the farmers
awareness of agrochemicals;
iii.
identify the types and
sources of agrochemicals available to the farmers;
iv.
ascertain the level of
access to agrochemical by the respondents;
v.
ascertain the extent of
use of agrochemicals by farmers;
vi.
ascertain farmers perceived effect of
agrochemical use on agricultural production; and
vii.
identify the constrains
to the use of agrochemical by the farmers in the study area.
1.8
HYPOTHESES OF THE STUDY
The following hypotheses were tested:
H01:
There is no significant relationship between access to agrochemicals and the
extent of use of agrochemicals among the women farmers.
H02,
There is no significant relationship between respondents’ age, marital status,
tenure system, farm size, level of education, farming experience, membership of
social organization and their extent of use of agrochemicals.
1.9
JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY
Agrochemicals (pesticides, herbicides
and fertilizers) are perceived as a conveying channels for enhancing crop
production technology though it is anexorbitant input. Balance use, best doses,
correct method and right time of application of agrochemicals guarantees
increased crop production. Agrochemicals are considered as a powerful weapon or
magic bullets in the developing countries in order to improve the agriculture
productivity and considerably improve the major public health indices as well.
Results
of this study should help in raising awareness and designing ways of solving
existing problems militating against women access to and use of agrochemicals
for increased agricultural productivity.
It
will guide policy makers and other stakeholders in the agricultural subsector
in formulating policies aimed at alleviating the constraints faced by women
farmers particularly as it pertains to access to and control of farm resources.
This
study will also serve a reference material for other scholars and researchers
working in similar topic as well as pointing the way forward for future
research.
This
study will supply the government on statistical data on the extent of access
and use of agrochemicals among women farmers n Abia state.
1.7 DEFINITION
OF TERMS
Assessment: To
assess means to make judgment about the nature or quality of somebody, or
thing. Esenjor (2012) defined assessment as the critical examination of an
ongoing or completed projects design, experience, results and actual or
potential effectiveness. Evaluation and assessment are synonymous and hence can
be used interchangeably and is hereby applied (Hornby, 2015)
Agrochemical:
Agrochemical is a common term encompassing several chemical products that are
used in agricultural activities. In most cases, it refers to the wide range of
pesticides with insecticides, herbicides, and fungicides. It may also include artificial
fertilizers, hormones and other chemical growth agents as well as intense
stores of raw animal manure (AVMC, 2007).
Agrochemical is a combination of agricultural chemical. It is a
generic name for the various chemical products used in agricultural
production.
Agrochemical
is any chemical used in agriculture,
including chemical fertilizers,
herbicides,
and insecticides.
Most are mixtures of two or more chemicals; active ingredients provide the
desired effects, and inert ingredients stabilize or preserve the active
ingredients or aid in application.
Pesticides: The
word “pesticides” illustrates a group of agrochemicals intended to destroy or
control pests of all kinds. Pesticides are named according to their intended
use. For example, insecticides are used against insects, herbicides against
plants and fungicides against fungi. Pesticides include both organic and
inorganic moieties and may be classified into different groups based on their
chemical composition.
Fungicides:
Fungicides are used to control fungal problems like molds mildew and rust. Various
fungicides such as Dithane M-45 (mancozeb), Dithane Z-78 (zineb), Fytolan or Blitox-50
(copper oxychloride) and Bavistin were evaluated as foliar sprays for the
control of various foliar and cob rot diseases (Govinda, 2014).
Fertilizers:
Fertilizers are chemical substances,
generally in the form of powder, granules, pellets or crystals which can be
added to the soil to increase its fertility. Examples are: Nitrogen fertilizer,
like urea, sodium, nitrate, potassium nitrate; Potassium fertilizer such as
muriate of potash; Phosphorus fertilizers such as single super phosphate,
triple super phosphate, basic slag (Iwena, 2012).
Access to agrochemicals: This
refers to the ability to obtain agrochemicals from different sources. It
involves availability of infrastructure, which includes communication channels,
delivery systems and access points needed for the acquisition, processing and
use of agrochemicals. Farmers’ access to different agrochemical sources helps
them to get a variety of information on improved production technology. Access
to improved agrochemicals can be influenced by availability, physical distance,
costs, convenience, skills and perceived relevance of the technology. People
seek technology information that they perceive to be relevant to their context
and tend to use sources that are accessible physically and technically (Koller et al., 2001).
Use of agrochemicals: Agrochemical
use refers to “the physical and mental acts involved in incorporating the
improved technology found into the person’s existing technology base. It may
involve, therefore, physical acts such as marking sections in a text to note
their importance or significance, as well as mental acts that involve, for
example, comparison of new technology with existing knowledge” (Wilson, 2010).
Technology use is an indicator of technology needs, because it leads an
individual to the use of technology in order to meet his or her technology needs.
1.8 LIMITATIONS
OF THE STUDY
The
study encountered the following major limitation;
1. Sampling error.
This is an error that occurs due to deviation of the selected sample from the
true characteristics, traits, behaviours, qualities or figures of the entire
population. The study made use of a sample whose generalization of the result
cannot be perfect as if the entire population was involved in the study due to
individual differences that may exist among the farmers in the study area.
2. Availability of materials:
There weren’t enough materials on agrochemicals
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