ABSTRACT
This research work was aimed at evaluating the antibacterial activity of Vernonia amygdalina and Aloe barbadensis miller on Staphylococcus aureus . Twenty (20) stock cultures of S.aureus were collected. These bacterial isolates were subjected to antibacterial susceptibility testing using extracts of Vernonia amygdalina and Aloe barbadensis miller, extracted with various solvents (ethanol, and water). The diameter inhibition zones, minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) were measured. All the Staphylococcus aureus were resistant to the extracts of Aloe barbadensis miller while few isolates of Staphylococcus aureus was susceptible to both water and ethanolic extracts of Vernonia amygdalina having the highest zone of 11mm for isolate 18 and lowest zone of inhibition of 10mm for isolate 16. The ethanolic extract of Vernonia amygdalina has an MIC value of 100mg/ml while that of water extract has the highest MIC value of 100mg/ml for isolate 16 and lowest MIC value of 50mg/ml for isolate 18. This suggests that Aloe barbadensis miller has no antibacterial effect on S.aureus when water is used as solvent for extraction as it does not extract adequate amount of metabolites needed for antibacterial activity while Vernonia amygdalina has antibacterial effect against some strains of S.aureus. I recommend that further studies should be made to determine the active bioconstituent responsible for the antibacterial activity of Aloe barbadensis miller.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Certification i
Dedication
ii
Acknowledgement iii
Table
of Content
iv
List
of Table vi
Abstract
vii
CHAPTER ONE:
INTRODUCTION
1
1.0 Background
of Study
1
1.1Aims
and Objectives
4
CHAPTER TWO:
LITERATURE REVIEW
5
2.0 Origin of Phytomedicine
5
2.1 Drug resistance in bacteria
6
2.1.1Need
of new antimicrobials to combat resistance
7
2.2
Characteristics of phytomedicine
7
2.2.1
Why the demand for phytomedicine
7
2.2.2
Therapeutic benefit of phytomedicine over synthetic drugs 8
2.3 Plant product as medicinal agents 9
2.3.1
Metabolites
9
2.3.2
Present use of plant as antimicrobial
10
2.4
Phyto-chemical analysis of medicinal plant
10
2.5
Economic benefit 11
2.6
Aloe vera
11
2.6.1
Scientific classification of aloe vera 12
2.6.2
Description of aloe vera
12
2.6.3
Taxonomy and nomenclature 13
2.6.4
Anatomy of aloe vera
13
2.6.5
Distribution of aloe vera 14
2.6.6
Cultivation of aloe vera
14
2.6.7
Chemical constituents of aloe vera
15
2.6.8
Medicinal properties
16
2.6.9
Health benefits of aloe vera 16
2.7
Medicinal uses
16
2.7.1
Side effect of aloe vera
18
2.7.2 Cosmetic
values of aloe vera
19
2.7.3
Mechanism of action of aloe vera
20
2.8
Bitter leaf (Vernonia amygdalina)
21
2.9
Scientific classification of bitter leaf
21
2.10
Origin and geographic distribution
21
2.11
Properties of Vernonia amyygdalina 22
2.12
Uses of Vernonia amygdalina
22
2.13
Phytochemical composition of Vernonia
amygdaliina
22
2.14
Biological activities of Vernonia
amygdalina
23
2.15
Biology and pathogenicity of the test organism 23
2.15.1
Staphylococcus aureus
23
CHAPTER THREE
25
3.0
Materials
25
3.1
Sample preparation
25
3.2
Extraction of samples
25
3.3
Preparation of media
26
3.4
Antibacterial activity
26
3.4.1
Preparation of stock solution of extract
26
3.4.2
Reactivation of stock culture of tests organism
26
3.4.3
Culturing and sensitivity testing
26
3.4.4
Determination of minimum inhibitory concentration
27
CHAPTER FOUR
28
4.0
Results
28
CHAPTER FIVE 33
5.0
Discussion
33
5.1 Conclusion and recommendation
34
References
35
LIST OF TABLES
TABLES PAGES
4.1
Antibacterial activity of Vernonia
amygdalina on Staphylococcus aurues 29
4.2
Antibacterial activity of Aloe vera on Staphylococcus
aureus
30
4.3 Minimum Inhibitory Concentration of ethanol
extract of Vernonia amygdalina 31
4.4
Minimum Inhibitory Concentration of aqueous extract of Vernonia amygdalina 32
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.0
BACKGROUND OF STUDY
Since dawn of the
civilization, nature has been a treasure of remedies for providing relief from
various ailments afflicting mankind. Plants usually contain many biologically
active structurally diverse compounds which are useful as drugs, lead structures
or raw materials and are used primarily for treating mild or chronic diseases
(kumar et al., 2013). The earliest written records on Egyptian, Greek,
Roman, Chinese and Indian traditional medicine have listed medicinal plants and
prescriptions used in treating various ailments. Herbal medicines are in great
demand in the developing countries for primary healthcare because of their wide
biological and medicinal activities, higher safety margins and lesser costs.
Even in less developed societies, medicinal recipes from plants have been
passed orally from generation to generation. According to World Health
Organisation (WHO), about 80% of the world population relies chiefly on the
plant based traditional medicine especially for their primary healthcare needs
(Nitha et al., 2012; Mishra et al., 2013). Medicinal plants are
the richest bio-resource of traditional systems of medicine, modern medicines,
food supplements, folk medicines pharmaceutical intermediates and chemical
entities for synthetic drugs (Hammer et al., 1999). It has been
estimated that 14-28% of higher plants species are used medicinally and that
74% of pharmacologically active plant derived components were discovered after
following up on ethno medicinal use of the plants. Plants are rich in a wide variety
of secondary metabolites such as tannins, alkaloids, terpenoids and flavonoids
etc. which possess antimicrobial properties and may serve as an alternative,
effective, cheap and safe antimicrobial for the treatment of microbial
infections. A number of interesting outcomes have been found with the use of a
mixture of natural products to treat diseases, most notably the synergistic
effects and polypharmacological application of plant extracts
(Gibbon, 2003).
Infectious diseases are responsible for large scale morbidity and mortality
worldwide. Synthetic drugs are not only expensive and inadequate for the
treatment of diseases but are also often with adulterations and side effects
(Mishra et al., 2011). Plants are important
sources of medicines and presently about 25% of pharmaceutical prescriptions in
the United States contain at least one plant-derived ingredient. In the last
century, roughly 121 pharmaceutical products were formulated based on the
traditional knowledge obtained from various sources. Plant derived drugs came
into use in the modern medicine through the uses of plant material as
indigenous cure in folklore or traditional systems of medicine. The world is
now moving towards the herbal medicine or phytomedicines that repair and
strengthen bodily systems (especially the immune system, which can then
properly fight foreign invaders) and help to destroy offending pathogens
without toxic side effects. The earliest documentation about the usage of
herbal remedies comes from China and dates back to 2800 BC. Today, it has been
developed as a separate industry as many people favour herbal medicine over
synthetic medicine.
Coming
nearer home in Africa, different African countries have for a long time used
all sorts of herb for the treatment of different types of diseases. The problem
of herbal medicine in Nigeria is that it is not well documented. Practitioners
all over the country have died not having recorded the knowledge of herbal
medicine for descendants ( Paul, 2018). Few herbal remedies have conclusively
demonstrated any positive effect on humans, possibly due to inadequate testing
(Ernst ,2007). However, examples of medicinal plants in use in other parts of
the world and in Nigeria in particular that have demonstrable some interesting
pharmacological results includes: Aloe vera, it is traditionally used for
healing burns and wounds ( Maethaisong et
al., 2007).
Currently 80% of the world population depends
on plant-derived medicine for the first line of primary health care for human
alleviation because it has no side effects. Several regulatory models for
herbal medicines are currently available including prescription drugs,
over-the-counter substances, traditional medicines and dietary supplements
(Mukeshwar et al., 2011). The multidrug
resistant microbial strains are continuously increasing due to indiscriminate
use of broad-spectrum antibiotics, intravenous catheters, immunosuppressive
agents, organ transplantation and ongoing epidemics of Human Immunodeficiency
virus (Kumar et al., 2013).
Two plants were selected
for this work based on the ethnobotanical evidence of the plant in the
community.
Aloe
barbadensis Miller, commonly known as Aloe vera, belongs to the family Liliaceae. Aloe
vera is a typical xerophytes with thick fleshy, strangely
cuticularized spiny leaves. It has been endorsed for large variety of
conditions and has come to play a prominent role as a contemporary folk
medicine. The peeled, spineless leaves
of the plant contain mucilaginous jelly from the parenchyma cells which is referred as Aloe
vera gel. The gel is a watery-thin, viscous, colorless liquid that
contains anthraquinone glycosides, glycoprotein, gamma-linolenic acid,
prostaglandins and mucopolysaccharides that are essentially responsible
for the medicinal properties including antibacterial, antifungal and its
antiviral activity. Aloe vera is mainly known as Alon –Erin in Yoruba (
Linus, 2016) ,Ebube agu in Igbo then Tinya in Hausa. It has purgative, growth
enhancer or promoter, aphrodisiac, and anti-inflammatory properties. It is also
a good blood purifier, uterine tonic. Aloe
vera is widely used in liver-
spleen inflammatory conditions, skin diseases and ophthalmic disorders. Due to
its anti-inflammatory and wound healing properties it is especially used in abscess,
boils, blisters,
ulcers and infected burn wounds. Many studies have demonstrated so far the
presence of many biologically active photochemical in the various solvent
extracts of Aloe vera gel,
which may be responsible for its hypoglycaemic and antioxidant properties.
Therefore, the present study was conducted to evaluate the antimicrobial
activity of different solvent extracts of Aloe vera against common skin pathogens of public health
significance.
Vernonia amygdalina,
commonly known as bitter leaf, is a shrub that grows up to 3 meters high in the
African tropics and other parts of Africa, particularly, Nigeria, Cameroon and
Zimbabawe (Farombi,2011). Flower heads thistlelike, small, creamy-white,
sometimes slightly touched with mauve, about 10 mm long, grouped in dense
heads, axillary and terminal, forming large flat clusters about 15 cm in
diameter but not conspicuous; sweetly scented, especially in the evening. The
genus was named in honour of an English botanist, William Vernon, traveller and
plant collector in North America in the 17th century.
1.1
AIMS
AND OBJECTIVE.
1.11 AIM
This
work is aimed at determining the antibacterial effect of Aloe vera and Vernonia amygadalina on Staphylococcus
aureus.
1.12 OBJECTIVES
.
Ø To
determine the antibacterial activity of Aloe vera and Vernonia amygdalina on Staph.
aureus using ethanol and water as solvent for extraction.
Ø To
measure the zone of inhibition of these plants on Staph. aureus.
Ø To
determine the minimum inhibitory concentration of the plants on Staph.aureus.
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