BACTERIOLOGICAL AND PHYSICOCHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF PIPE-BORNE WATER IN UMUAHIA, ABIA STATE

ABSTRACT

Bacteriological and physicochemical analysis of pipe-borne water used in Umuahia, Abia State were analyzed bacteriologically and physicochemically using standard methods. Total viable counts was by pour plates techniques, while most probable number (MPN) counts were by the multiple tube fermentation technique. The physicochemical attributes revealed that the temperature and the pH of the water samples were within the range 27-300C and 6.5-7.5 respectively, which was found to be normal according to WHO standards of water. The total viable counts for all the water sample were generally high exceeding the limit of 1.0 x 102 cfu/ml for water. The MPN/100mL counts were determined after the presumptive, confirmatory and completed tests were carried out. Water from Amachara was found to have the highest count of about 4.25 colonies/100mL of water to 7.15 colonies/100mL of water, which could be as a result of broken pipes or leakages. The faecal coliform count on EMB agar plates ranged between 1.5-7.2 x 102 also exceeding the standard limit for water. The isolated organisms were identified to be Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella species, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas species, Shigella species, Streptococcus and Klebsiella species. This water is not potable for consumption. The safety of the pipe-borne water can be enhanced through proper sanitary survey and facility maintenances, by proper supervision with regular bacteriological assessment of the water using the water standard criteria.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Cover Page

Title Page                                                                                                                               

Certification                                                                                                                           i

Dedication                                                                                                                              ii

Acknowledgement                                                                                                                  iii

Table of Contents                                                                                                                   iv

List of figures                                                                                                                         v

List of Tables                                                                                                                          vi

Abstract                                                                                                                                   vii

CHAPTER ONE

1.0           Introduction                                                                                                                1

1.1           Aim and Objective                                                                                                      4                                                                      

CHAPTER TWO

2.0           Literature Review                                                                                           6

2.1           Water                                                                                                                          6

2.2           Sources of Water                                                                                                        6

2.3           Surface Water                                                                                                                         6

2.4       Ground Water                                                                                                             7

2.5           Bacteriological Analysis of Water                                                                 7

2.6           Indicator Organisms                                                                                                   8

2.6.1      Coliforms                                                                                                                    9

2.6.2      Faecal Coliforms                                                                                                        9

2.6.3      Escherichia coli                                                                                  10

2.6.4    Faecal Streptococci                                                                                                    12

2.6.5    Other Indicators                                                                                                          12

2.7.0      Method for Sanitary Analysis of Water                                                                                                                   13

2.71     Most probable number technique                                                                               13                                                                 

2.7.2    Presence-Absence Tests                                                                                             14                                                                                         

2.7.3    Plate Count Technique                                                                                               14                                                                                                                                           

2.8      Physicochemical Properties of Water                                                                          16

2.8.1   Physical Properties                                                                                                                                            17

2.8.1.1 Colour                                                                                                                         17

2.8.1.2 Taste                                                                                                                           17

2.8.1.3 Odour                                                                                                                          18

2.8.1.4 pH                                                                                                                               18

2.8.1.5 Temperature                                                                                                               19

2.8.1.6 Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)                                                                                    19

2.8.1.7 Turbidity                                                                                                                     19

2.8.1.8 Conductivity/Electrical Conductance                                                                        19

2.8.1.9 Corrosivity                                                                                                                  20

2.9.2 Chemical Properties                                                                                                      20

2.9.2.1 Hardness of Water                                                                                                      20

2.9.2.2 Acidity                                                                                                                                    21

2.9.2.3 Metal Ions (Cations)                                                                                                   21

2.10     Current Regulations and Surveillance of Drinking Water                                         24

CHAPTER THREE: MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1    Study Area                                                                                                                    2

3.2    Sample Collection                                                                                                         26

3.3    Bacteriological Methods                                                                                               27

3.3.1 Media Preparation                                                                                                         27

3.3.2  Enumeration, isolation and identification                                                                    27

3.3.3 Identification and Characteristics of Isolates                                                                28

3.3.3.1 Cultural Examination                                                                                                 28

3.3.3.2 Gram Staining                                                                                                            28

3.3.3.3 Test for Motility (Stab Culture Technique)                                                                29

3.3.3.4.Catalase Production Test                                                                                            29

3.3.3.5 Oxidase Test                                                                                                               29

3.3.3.6 Coagulase Test                                                                                                           30

3.3.3.7 Citrate Test                                                                                                                 30

3.3.3.8 Urease Production Test                                                                                              30

3.3.3.9 Carbohydrate Utilization Test                                                                                    31

3.4       Test For Coliforms                                                                                                     31

3.4.1    Presumptive Test                                                                                                        31

3.4.2    Confirmed Test                                                                                                           32

3.4.3    Completed Test                                                                                                           32

3.4.4    Physicochemical Analysis of Water Samples                                                            32

3.5       Bacteriological Analysis                                                                                             33

3.5.1    Isolation of Microorganisms                                                                                      33

CHAPTER FOUR: RESULT                                                                                              34

CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION, RECOMMENDATION AND CONCLUTION

5.1       Discussion                                                                                                                   39

5.2       Conclusion                                                                                                                  40

5.3       Recommendation                                                                               References                                                    

                                                     LIST OF TABLES

Tables                                                                                        Pages

1. Total counts of indicator bacteria.                                    34

2. Coliform count MPN/100mL                                             35

3. Frequency of occurrence of the bacteria isolates in the water samples.             36

4. Physicochemical properties of the water sample collected.               37

                                                          CHAPTER ONE

1.0           INTRODUCTION

 Water management is the foundation for the prevention and control of water borne diseases and assessment of drinking water quality is important for sustainable development. Not only the shortage in quality, but also the compromised quality of municipal pipe water has become a major public health issue (WHO,2010). In many developing countries, availability of water has become a critical and urgent problem and it is a matter of great concern to families and communities depending on non-public water supply system (Okonko et al., 2009). Water plays an indispensable role in sustenance of life and it is a key pillar of health determinant, since 80% of diseases in developing countries are due to lack of good quality water (Cheesbrough, 2006)). Approximately three out of five persons in developing world and only about one in four have any kind of sanitary facilities (Mengesha et al., 2004). Water is a common resource quite abundant in nature but unfortunately not readily available to man in the form desired. Water is fundamentally important to all plants, animals and man (Ajewole, 2005). Water is essential for life and life evolves in water. It is significant due to its unique chemical and physical properties (Obi and Okocha, 2007). The key to increase human productivity and long life is good quality water (Urbanky and Magnuson, 2002). The provision of good quality household for drinking water is often regarded as an important means of improving health. According to world health organization (WHO), there are an estimated 4 billion causes of diarrhea and 2.2 milliondeaths annually (WHO, 2002). The consumption of unsafe water has been implicated as one of the major causes of these diseases. Many areas in Umuahia receive water in their community stand pipes where the water is distributed. The microbiological quality of drinking water is of serious concern to consumers, water suppliers, regulators and public health authorities.  Water of good drinking quality is of basic importance to human physiology and man’s continued existence depends very much on its availability. The provision of potable water to the rural and urban population is necessary to prevent health hazards. Before water can be described as potable, it has to comply with certain physical, chemical and microbiological standards which are designed to ensure that the water is potable and safe for drinking (AOAC, 1990). During last decades, it was observed that the ground water get polluted drastically because of increased human activities and the growth of human population and rapid industrialization has led to increasing use of urban water as sewers, compromising other uses (APHA, 1998). Contamination of drinking water from any source is therefore a primary importance, because of the danger and risk of water borne diseases (Edema et al., 2001). Disease contacted through drinking water kill about 5 million children annually and makes youth of the world population sick (CDC, 2006). Throughout the world about 2.3 billion people suffer from disease linked to water related problems which continue to kill millions of people yearly. The quality of drinking water is a powerful environment determinant of health (WHO, 2010). Water quality monitoring is implemented by regulating agencies like the FMENV (formerly known as FEPA) provide guidelines and standards which can be used to detect unusual amount of pollutants in the environment and it involves physicochemical and bacteriological analyses of water samples from various sources. Several illnesses can be caused by water contaminated from faeces being passed or washed into river, stream or being allowed to seep into pipe water or bore hole (Blackbury et al.,2006). Improved water supply and proper sanitation can reduce the occurrence of these diseases. However, outbreaks of water and food borne diseases still often occur, even in developed countries .Pathogenic agents causing these diseases include the enteric bacteria (Diarrhegenic E. coli, Salmonella, Shigella, and Campylobacter), viruses (norovirus, hepatitis A) and protozoa (Cryptosporidium and Giardia). The need for determining the suitability of water for drinking and bathing purposes has been recognized since 1855 when Snow and Budd related outbreaks of typhoid fever and cholera to water contaminated with faecal wastes (Ahmed et al.,2013). It is estimated that up to 80% of ill health in developing countries are water and sanitation related (Cheesbrough, 2000). Water related diseases are the major cause of mortality and morbidity worldwide. Among these, diarrheal diseases are estimated to cause 1.8 million deaths each year, mostly in developing countries (WHO, 2006). Improved water supply and proper sanitation can reduce the occurrence of these diseases, however, outbreaks of water and food-borne diseases still often occur, even in developed countries (CDC, 2005). In the United States, 76 million cases of food borne illness occur every year resulting in 325000 hospitalization and 5000 deaths. Pathogenic agents causing these diseases include the enteric bacteria (Diarrhegenic E. coli, Salmonella, Shigella and Campylobacter), virus (norovirus, hepatitis A) and protozoa (Cryptosporidium and Giardia) (Mead and Slutsker, 1999). An outbreaks of E. coli O157:H7, caused by spinach in the U.S. and Canada, was reported in 2006 (CDC, 2006) the spinach was most likely contaminated by irrigation water in California. The occurrence of water borne illness has both economic and social impacts, consequently, monitoring the levels of contaminated and the prevention of disease outbreaks is important from both economic and public health perspectives ( Olajire and Imeokparia, 2011). Moreover, the need to assess the microbiological quality of water has become imperative because it has a direct effect on the health of individuals. Consequently, water borne diseases such as cholera and typhoid often has their outbreak especially during dry season (Banu and Menakuru, 2010). High prevalence of diarrhea among children and infants can be due to the use of the unsafe water and unhygienic practice (Oladipo et al., 2009). Thus, many infectious diseases are transmitted by water through feacal oral contamination. For most communities the most secure source of safe drinking water is pipe-borne water from municipal water treatment plants (EL-Taweel, 2001). Often, most of water treatment facilities do not deliver or fail to meet the water requirement of the served community due to corruption, lack of maintenance or increased population. The bacterial qualities of ground water, pipe borne water and the natural water supplies in Nigeria, have been reported to be unsatisfactory, with coliform counts far exceeding the level recommendation by WHO (Fujioka and Yoneyama,2011).

1.1           Aims and Objectives

1.          To find out if pipe water contains pathogens.

2.          To help the public to know the danger of drinking these water without adequate treatment.

3.          To compare the bacterial load of the water source and advice on safer source of water.

1.2  Statement of Problem

This source of water is contaminated through one way or the other.

1.          The short falls in the distribution of treated pipe corner water leads people to resort to alternative source of water which may be unfit for human consumption.

2.          This water can be populated through leakage/improper plumbing.

3.          Streams or rivers contaminated through waste from industries, leaves, dust and rain run often.

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