ABSTRACT
Proximate composition and organoleptic attributes of snacks (doughnut and chin-chin) made from composite flours of Bambara and wheat were evaluated. Experimental design was used to collect data for the study. Results showed that the proximate composition of the flour blends varied significantly with the addition of Bambara bean flour to the wheat flour. Protein content varied from 9.22% in the 100% wheat flour to 21.41% in the 100% Bambara flour. The fat varied from 4.03% to 18.4% while the ash increased from 2.87% to 5.14% and the fibre was increased from 2.1% to 4.30%. Variations in the proximate composition of the flour blends were found to be significantly different (P<0.05). The produced snacks, chin-chin and doughnut also showed variations in their respectively proximate compositions. In the doughnut samples, protein was of the range of 8.46% to 10.17% with the 100%. Bambara having the highest level. Similar significant variations were found in the fat content (7.34% to 9.72%), ash content (3.94% to 4.18%) and in the fibre (1.33% to 1.46%). A similar trend of variation was recorded for the chin-chin samples. Products, chin-chin and doughnut scored relatively well in the sensory evaluation of their respective attributes. The overall acceptability score of the chin-chin samples was between 3.10 and 7.70 with the 70% Bambara substituted flour blend having the highest. But in doughnut, the overall acceptability was between 6.68 to 7.8 scores in the specific attributes of taste, flavour, texture etc. varied significantly between blends. It was concluded that the partial substitution of wheat flour with Bambara improved the nutrient quality of chin-chin and doughnut without compromising their respective acceptability to people. Based on the findings, it is recommended that the use of legume flours in conjunction with wheat flour in production of snacks should be encouraged.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE
PAGE I
DECLARATION II
CERTIFICATION
III
DEDICATION IV
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS V
TABLE
OF CONTENTS VI
LIST
OF TABLES IX
LIST
OF FIGURES X
LIST
OF PLATES XI
ABSTRACT XII
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1
Background of the Study 1
1.2
Statement of the Problem 5
1.3
Objectives of the Study 6
1.4
Research Questions 6
1.5
Significance of the Study 7
1.6
Scope of the Study 7
CHAPTER
TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW 8
2.1.1 Conceptual Framework 8
2.1.2 Organoleptic Properties 12
2.1.3 Composite Flour 11
2.1.4 Composite Flour in Snacks Making 11
2.1.5 Nutritional and Health Benefit of Bambara
Bean
(Vigna subterranea) 12
2.1.6 Medical Use 14
2.1.7 Nutrient Composition of Bambara Bean 14
2.1.8 Anti-Nutritional Factors in Bambara Bean 15
2.1.9 Processing of Bambara Bean Flours 17
2.1.10 Origin of Wheat (Triticum spp.) 22
2.1.11 Chemical
Composition of Wheat 24
2.1.12 Uses
of Wheat 24
2.1.13 Processing of Wheat into Flour 25
2.1.14
Wheat Cleaning 25
2.1.15 Nutritive Value of Wheat 26
2.2 Theoretical Framework 26
2.2.1 Food Product Development 26
2.3 Review of Related Empirical Studies 28
2.4 Summary of Literature Review 29
CHAPTER
THREE
3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS 31
3.1 Research Design 31
3.2 Sources
of Raw Materials 31
3.3 Processing of Raw Materials 31
3.3.1 Processing of Raw Bambara Beans into Flour 31
3.4 Sample Formulation 31
3.5 Proximate Analysis 35
3.5.1 Moisture Content Determination 35
3.5.2 Ash Content Determination 35
3.5.3 Fat Content Determination 36
3.5.4 Crude Fibre Determination 36
3.5.5 Crude Protein Determination 37
3.5.6 Determination of Carbohydrate 38
3.6 Sensory
Evaluation 38
3.7 Statistical
Analysis 39
CHAPTER
FOUR
4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 40
4.1 Findings of the Study 40
4.2 Discussion of findings 46
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Summary 47
5.1.1 Restatement of problem 47
5.1.2 Description of procedures used 48
5.2 Major Findings 48
5.3 Conclusion 49
5.4 Contribution to knowledge 49
5.5 Recommendations 50
5.6 Suggestion of further study 50
REFERENCES 51
APPENDICES 55
LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1: Showing the Different Ratios of Bambara
Bean
and
Wheat Flour. 32
Table
4.1: Proximate Composition of Composite
Flour 43
Table
4.2: Procimate Composition of
Doughnut Produced from Composite Flour of
Wheat and bambara Bean 44
Table
4.3: Mean Sensory Evaluation Scores
of Chin-chin Produced from Bambara
Bean and Wheat Composite Flours products 45
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Flow
chart for the production of bambara bean flour 32
LIST OF PLATES
Plate 4.1: CHA
(100% wheat flour control) 40
Plate 4.2: DTB
(100% Vigna subterranea seed flour) 40
Plate 4.3: CHC
(70% Vigna subterranea seed flour,
30% Triticum seed flour 41
Plate 4.4: DTD
(50% Vigna subterranea seed flour,
50% Triticum seed flour 41
Plate 4.5: DTE
(70% Triticum seed flour, 30% Vigna
subterranea seed flour) 42
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1
BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
Vigna
subterranea (Bambara bean) in
Nigeria is the third most commonly eaten legume after groundnut and cowpea
(Omoikhoje, 2008). The Bambara bean (Vigna
subterranea) is an annual, creeping legume with glabrous trifoliate leaves.
It has a deep taproot surrounded by lateral profuse roots bearing nitrogen fixing
noodles. Flowers are presented as papilionaceous racemes. Once fertilized, the
flower is drawn below the soil through a tunnel. The seed are 2 or 3-seeded
pods of 1.5 to 3 cm long, wrinkled and at first indehiscent. The seeds are
round, smooth and very hard when dry (Ecoport, 2009).
The plant (Vigna
subterranea) originated in West Africa; Vigna
subterranea ripens its pods underground, just like the peanut (also called
a groundnut). It is cultivated primarily for its seeds, which are used as human
food. Vigna subterranea grows well
where groundnut does not (Olomu, 1995; James, 2003; Brink, Ramolemana and
Sibuga, 2006). Vigna subterranea is also known by its common names Bambara groundnut,
Bambara nut, Bambara bean, Congo goober, earth pea, ground bean, hog beanut.
Vigna
subterranea are used in many
types of foods, some of which are important part of human diets. Bambara bean
flour is often processed into Okpa (local
dish prepared by steaming Bambara bean flour) which is fondly eaten in Nigeria especially
in the South Eastern region. Bambara bean can also be boiled and eaten when it
is still fresh, or the dry nuts fried and eaten like fried groundnut
(Kiin-Kabari, Barimalaa, Agoha and Oboh, 2005). It can be milled to make flour,
the dry seeds can last for very long time and serves as famine food boosting
food availability (National Research Council, 2006). Seeds can also be fed to animals
and leafy shoots used as fodder (Brink et
al., 2006). Because of their relatively high protein content, Vigna subterranea seeds are a
potentially valuable protein source for all classes of mammals. However, it has
been recommended to use the shells and other by-products to feed animals and to
use the seeds as food so that people can benefit from their protein and energy
during the dry season. The essential amino acid profile of the seeds is
comparable to that of soybean (Omoikhoje, 2008).
Vigna
subterranea seeds are
reported to have higher antitryptic activity than soybean and the level of
activity depends on the variety (landrace) (Tibe, Amarteifio and Njogu, 2007). Heat treatments such as boiling
or roasting are usually effective in destroying trypsin inhibitors. Phytates
are found in high proportions in Vigna
subterranea seeds and are known to reduce cation available (Ca
particularly) (Nwanna et al., 2005).
Cooking and other forms of processing (e.g. soaking, milling, hulling,
germination, fermentation) reduce the concentration of antinutritional factors.
However, processing does not always increase the feeding value (Nwanna et al., 2005; Oloyede et al., 2007).
Vigna
subterranea is reportedly
high in protein (14-24%) (National Academy of Science, 1998) and phosphorus
(380 mg/100g) (Elegbede, 1998). The seeds contain fair amount of iron (7.6
mg/100g) and significant level of calcium (73 mg/100g). The seed grain has a
good balance of essential amino acids with a relatively high proportion of
lysine (6.6%) (Elegbede, 1998). Stephens (2003) noted that Bambara bean protein
contain higher essential amino acid, methionine than other grain legumes, while
the oil content is less than half of the amount found in legumes like peanuts.
Hence, this research work which borders on processing Vigna subterranea (Bambara bean) seed
into flour to form a composite flour for the development of snacks (Chin-chin,
doughnut) as a means of diversifying their uses, increase their utilization as
well as improving the nutritional value of the snacks products.
Snacks are defined as light quick meals usually eaten
between the main meals intended to assuage hunger or to satisfy the consumers
craving for its taste (Nnam, 2003; Matz, 1993). Wholesome snacks boost energy,
take the edge off appetite and most importantly provide useful nutrients needed
for healthy growth, development and living (Karen, 2000). Lately, snacking is
becoming prominent in the feeding of children, adolscents and working-class
people.
However, in recent times, snacks are being fortified
as to provide consumer with food product that provides the much needed
nutrient. Wheat flour may be unavailable or uneconomical thus, in such
countries like Nigeria, the producer have to rely on the importation of wheat
flour to sustain the production of such snacks and pastry products are on the
increase and the cost of the products have become very expensive (Sinful and Darko,
2010; Dotsey, 2009). In order to sustain the consumption of these snacks and
reduce the importation of wheat flour, there is therefore a need to come up
with composite flour of bambara bean and wheat in the production of these
snacks as an alternative.
Hornby (2001) defined development as a process of
creating something new or more advanced. Food production on the other hand is
defined as a systematic commercially oriented research to develop product and
satisfying known or suspected consumer need (Winger and Wall, 2006). The
increased awareness of nutritional needs food safety and changing life style of
consumers have propelled the demand for the development of more convenient food
such as snack. Winger and Wall (2006) also noted that, food product development
is a vital parts of the food industry that, product development process.
FAO (2006) opined that, the key factor in food product
development is to ensure that the product meets consumer needs. Attempts have
therefore been made to produce flour from other cereals and legumes apart from
wheat, as well as composite flour from different food categories. The term
composite flour according to Iwe (2003) is refers to as a mixture of any two or
more maize, rice, millet, sorghum, yam, cassava, cocoyam and so on with or
without wheat flour.
Usually, the aim of producing composite flour is to
get a product that is better than the individual components. Better may mean
improved properties or performance, or in some cases, improve economies. The
nutrition value of cereal flours that are poor in lysine but rich in the sulfur
containing amino acids is improved by the addition of legume flours, and the
nutritional value of root and tuber flours, which are poor in protein, is
sufficiently improved by the addition of cereals and legumes are good sources of
protein, which complement each other with respect to their amino acid profile
(Ihekoronye and Ngoddy, 1985). These grains are sometimes traditionally
processed using methods such as fermentation and germination, which have been
reported to improve their nutritional quality. Hallen (2004), Nwanna (2005) and
Winger and wall (2006) reported that germination induces an increase in free
limiting amino acids with components. Chavan and Kadam (1989) have also
reported that fermentation of grains amino acid composition and vitamin
content, increase protein and starch availabilities and lower level of
antinutrients. It is therefore expected that composite flour produced from
germinated cereals and fermented legumes will have the advantage of improving
overall nutrition.
However, one of the biggest challenges in creating a
new food product is predicting how it will be accepted by the consumers. Reau
(2011) noted that, there is a number of factors that determine consumer
acceptability including price, convenience and packaging. But one key factor
that deservers significance evaluation is the sensory experience of a food.
Product is the result of the sensory attributes in terms of appearance,
texture, flavor, taste and other positive attributes which are encountered by
the individuals.
Sensory testing is the method of evaluating food
products in terms of the human sense of sight, smell, taste, touch and hearing
(Reau, 2011). Sensory testing according to Costell et al. (2011) and Reau (2011) is a way to dissect and evaluate all
of the factors that can contribute to food product successes or failure. On
this note, the study seeks to develop two snacks from composite flour of Vigna subterranea seed and wheat flour
to evaluate the levels of acceptance.
1.2
STATEMENT OF PROBLEM
Wheat flour is the flour of choice for producing most
snacks consumed in Nigeria. A lot of research works have been carried out by
various individuals and organizations on the use of wheat flour in bakery
products, the outcome is varying qualities of snacks developed from crops such
as rice, corn, cassava, plantain etc among others. Winger and Wall (2006)
stated that the consumption of legumes and cereals based foods like chin-chin
and doughnut requires the development of an adequate substitute and this should
be one that is readily available, cheap and able to replace wheat flour in
terms of functionality.
According to FAO (2006), flours produced from either
cereals or tubers will have a nutritional value inferior to those produced from
a combination of cereals, legumes or tubers. The seed grain has a good balance
of essential amino acids with a relatively high proportion of lysine (6.6%)
(Elegbede, 1998). Steve Ijarotimi and Ruth Esho (2009) also noted that Bambara bean
protein contain higher essential amino acid, methionine than other grain
legumes, while the oil content is less than half of the amount found in legumes
like peanuts. No doubt food products made from the blend of Vigna subterranea seeds because they
have high proteneous and nutritional value.
It is on this review that the researcher investigates
the proximate components and acceptability of two snacks (chin-chin and
doughnut) made from composite flour of Vigna
subterranea (Bambara bean) flour and wheat flour.
1.3
OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The main objective of the study is to determine the
proximate components and organoleptic attributes of Chin-Chin and doughnut made
from composite flours of Bambara bean and Wheat. Specifically the study will;
1.
develop composite
flours from Bambara bean and wheat flour in varying percentages;
2.
produce two snacks
chin-chin and doughnut using the various composite flours of Bambara bean and
wheat;
3.
evaluate the
proximate composition of chin-chin and doughnut made from the various composite
flours; and
4.
conduct the
sensory evaluation of the products.
1.4 RESEARCH
QUESTIONS
1.
How can composite
flours be produced from Bambara bean and wheat flour in varying percentages?
2.
How can two snacks
chin-chin and doughnut be produced from composite flours of Bambara bean and
wheat?
3.
What are the proximate
composition of chin-chin and doughnut made from the various composite flours?
4.
What are the
levels of acceptability of the products?
1.5 SIGNIFICANCE
OF THE STUDY
The findings of this research will be beneficial to
home makers, farmers, students of home economics, colleges, universities and
government of Nigeria.
The finding of this research when made available will
improve family menu, as local foods will be used in diversified diet to meet
the nutritional needs of the families.
The findings of this research will also be beneficial
to industries if the products (snacks) developed from the blends of Vigna subterranea and wheat flour composite
are produced by industries in large quantities, packaged in more convenient
form and sold to the public for profit. This industrialization will in turn
increase the demand on the production of bambara bean. The farmers who grow
this crop in large quantities will experience an increase in their family’s
standard of living, as demand for the crop increases the sales improves, then
the money gains from the produce will be used to meet other needs in the
family.
The findings would also be of important to the general
public as it will bring to lime light the nutritional value of this local crop
– Bambara bean.
This research will also be resourceful to students and
Home Economics lecturers in colleges and universities who carryout research
studies in food products development as it will provide them information on the
need to develop new food products using locally available food crops, which
should be integrated into the teaching of the Home Economics programme.
1.6 SCOPE OF THE STUDY
The study focused on the development of two
snacks (doughnut and chin-chin) made from composite flours of Bambara bean and
wheat. The study will evaluate the proximate composition of the products and also
to determine the acceptability of the products using sensory evaluation.
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