ABSTRACT
This research work was aimed at taking care of post parturient women using local spices. The spices were processed into flour. Antioxidant and bioactive potential of the instant pepper soup flour mix was determined. The limited knowledge of the bioactive potentials of this instant pepper soup flour mix produced from yam, uziza, uda and uhiokirihio triggered this research interest. Soups with improved proximate, antioxidant, phytochemical and sensory properties were produced using instant flours made from yam (Dioscorea rotundata), uziza (Piper guineense) uda (Xylopia aethiopica), and uhiokirihio (Tetrapleura tetraptera).The yam flour in the formulation served as a carrier. The formulation blends (Yam: Uziza: Uda: Uhiokirihio: 499,(yam: uziza: uda : uhiokirihio: 498, (Yam:Uziza:Uhikirihio:524, (Yam:Uda;Uhiokirihio: 511, (Yam:Uziza:532, (Yam:Uda:512 and Yam:Uhiokirihio:533) was obtained. The proximate compositions, phytochemical, antioxidant properties of the instant flour mix and sensory properties of the pepper soup was determined and subjected to Statistical Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) and the general acceptability determined using spider plot design of Microsoft Excel System. The means variability was judged for significance at 95% confidence intervals (p<0.05). The instant flour samples had proximate compositions ranging from 75.36 to78.73 %carbohydrate, 10.21 to 10.55 % moisture, 2.46 to 2.97 % ash, 1.68 to 3.52 % crude fiber, 1.95 to 2.68 % fat, 4.64 to 5.03 % protein, 89.45 to 89.79 % dry matter and343.66 to 353.75 Kcal energy. The phytochemical properties of the instant flour mix samples range from 2.49 to 3.48 mg/100g alkaloids, 1.55 to 1.64 mg/100g flavonoids, 1.47 to 2.15 mg/100g saponin, 0.41 to 0.55 mg/100g tannin, 0.13 to 0.17 mg/100g hydrogen cyanide, 5.58 to 6.49 µg/100 g carotenoids, 0.61 to 0.66 mg/100 g phytate, 0.26 to 0.38 mg/100 g oxalate and 0.14 to 0.24 mg/100 g anthocyanin. The antioxidant properties of the instant flours ranged from 56.11 to 62.47mg GAE/g total phenols, 51.96 to 59.37 mgQE/gflavonoids, 68.17 to 72.87 % ascorbic acid, 49.94 to 65.63% IC50 Diphenylpicryl hydrazine (DPPH) 31.75 to 38.34 mgGAE/g and Ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP). The sensory evaluation results showed that all the soup samples had high rating for all the parameters evaluated. The 498 (90 g yam flour, 5 g uziza, and 5 g uda) compared better than other substitution levels which were generally acceptable as they were neither liked nor disliked by the judges.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Cover
Page i
Certification
ii
Declaration iii
Dedication
iv
Acknowledgement
v
Table of Contents vi
List
of Tables xi
List
of Figures
xii
List
of plates
xiii
Abstract xiv
CHAPTER
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1
Background of the Study 1
1.2
Statement of the Problem
3
1.3
Justification
3
1.4
Aims and Objectives
4
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1
Natural Healing Perspectives of Culinary Herbs and Spices 5
2.2 Morphology and Description of
some Culinary Herbs and Spices 8
2.2.1 Dioscorea
rutundata (Dioscoreaceae,
Dioscorea L) 9
2.2.2 Piper guineense Schum and Thonn (Piperaceae) 11
2.2.3
Xylopia aethiopica (schum Annonaceae) 13
2.2.4 Tetrapleura
tetraptera Schum and ThonnTaub (Mimosaceae) 14
2.3
Chemical Costituents of Culinary Herbs and Spices 16
2.4
Nutritional and Medicinal Properties of Culinary Herbs and Spices 19
2.4.1 Tetrapleura tetraptera Schum and ThonnTaub (Mimosaceae), 22
2.5 Phenolic Contents 25
2.6 Antioxidant Potentials of Spices
27
2.7 Bioactive Properties of Combination of Culinary
Herbs and Spices 29
CHAPTER 3 MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1 Source of Materials
31
3.2 Preparation of Samples
32
3.2.1
Preparation of Uziza Powder 33
3.2.2 Preparation of Uda Powder 33
3.2.3 Preparation of Uhiokirihio Powder 34
3.2.4 Preparation of Yam Flour 35
3.3 Formulations
of Sample Blends 37
3.4 Antioxidant Screening 37
3.4.1 Screening
for DPPH Radical Scavenging Activity DPPH. 37
3.4.1
Ferric Reducing Antioxidant Power (FRAP) 38
3.4.2 Total Phenolic Content 38
3.4.3 Total Flavonoids 39
3.4.4 Estimation
of Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) 39
3.5 Evaluation of Phytochemical Properties of
the Samples 40
3.5.1 Determination of Alkaloid 40
3.5.2 Determination of Saponin 41
3.5.3 Determination of Flavonoid 41
3.5.4 Determination of Phytate 42
3.5.5 Tannin Determination 42
3.5.6 Carotenoid
Determination (Provitamin A) 43
3.5.7.
Determination of Anthocyanin 44
3.5.8 Determination
of Hydrogen cyanide 45
3.6 Determination of Proximate Composition 45
3.6.1 Determination of
Moisture Content 45
3.6.2 Determination of
Crude Fiber 46
3.6.3
Determination of Ash Content 46
3.6.4
Determination of Crude Fat 47
3.6.5 Determination of Crude Protein 47
3.3.6 Determination of Carbohydrate 48
3.7 Sensory Evaluation Analysis 48
CHAPTER
4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
4.1 Proximate
Composition of Instant Flour Samples 50
4.1.1 Carbohydrate
Composition of the Instant Flour Samples 50
4.1.2 Moisture
Composition of the Instant Flour Samples 52
4.1.3 Ash
Composition of the Instant Flour Samples 52
4.1.4 Crude
fiber Composition of the Instant Flour Samples 53
4.1.5 Ethyl
Extract (fat) Composition of the Instant Flour Samples 53
4.1.6 Protein
Composition of the Instant Flour Samples 54
4.1.7 Dry
Matter Composition of the Instant Flour Samples 55
4.1.8 Energy
Composition of the Instant Flour Samples 55
4.2 Phytochemical
Properties of Instant Flour
made from Yam, Uziza, Uda and Uhiokirihio 57
4.2.1 Alkaloids
Composition of the Instant Flour Samples 58
4.2.2 Flavonoid
Composition of the Instant Flour Samples 60
4.2.3 Saponin
Composition of the Instant Flour Samples 61
4.2.4 Tannin
Composition of the Instant Flour Samples 62
4.2.5 Hydrogen
Cyanide Composition of the Instant Flour Samples 62
4.2.6 Carotenoids
Composition of the Instant Flour Samples 63
4.2.7 Phytate
Composition of the Instant Flour Samples 64
4.2.8 Oxalate
Composition of the Instant Flour Samples 65
4.2.9 Anthocyanin
Composition of the Instant Flour Samples 66
4.3 Antioxidant
Properties of Instant Flour made from Yam,
Uziza, Uda and
Uhiokirihio
66
4.3.1 Total
Phenol Composition of the Instant Flour Samples 67
4.3.2 Flavonoid
Composition of the Instant Flour Samples 69
4.3.3 Ascorbic
Acid Composition of the Instant Flour Samples 70
4.3.4 Diphenylpicryl
Hydrazine (DPPH) Composition of the Instant Flour Samples 71
4.3.5 Ferric
Reducing Antioxidant Power (FRAP) Composition of the Instant Flour
Samples 71
4.4 Sensory
Evaluation of Soup made from
Instant Flour Produced from Yam, Uziza, Uda and
Uhiokirihio 72
4.4.1 Taste 74
4.4.2 Aroma 74
4.4.3 Colour
Attractiveness 75
4.4.4 Hotness 75
4.4.5 General
Acceptability 75
CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Conclusion 77
5.2 Recommendations 78
REFERENCES 79
LIST OF TABLES
4.1: Proximate compositions of
instant flour produced from yam (Discorea rotundata),
Uziza (Piper
guineense) uda (Xylopia aethiopica), and uhiokirihio
(Tetrapleura tetraptera) 50
4.2: Phytochemical properties of instant flour produced from yam (Discorea
rotundata),
uziza (Piper
guineense) Uda (Xylopia aethiopica), and uhiokirihio
(Tetrapleura tetraptera) 58
4.3: Antioxidant properties of instant flour made from yam (Discorea
rotundata),
Uziza (Piper
guineense) uda (Xylopia aethiopica), and uhiokirihio
(Tetrapleura tetraptera) 68
4.4: Sensory properties of soups
made from instant flour produced from yam
(Dioscorea rotundata), uziza
(Piper guineense) uda (Xylopia aethiopica), and
Uhiokirihio
(Tetrapleura tetraptera) 73
LIST OF FIGURES
3.2.1 Preparation of Uziza powder
32
3.2.2
Preparation of Uda powder
33
3.2.3
Preparation of Uhiokirihio
powder
34
3.2.4
Preparation of Yam flour
35
4.1: Dry matter composition of the instant flour
samples 55
4.2: Energy composition of the instant flour
samples 56
4.3:
Spider plot showing the General
Acceptability of samples 76
LIST
OF PLATES
3.1
Yam (Discorea rotundata)
3.2
Uziza (Piper guieense)
3.3 Uda (Xylopia
aethiopica)
3.4 Uhiokirihio (Tetrapleura
tetraptera)
3.5 Yam flour
3.6 Uziza powder
3.7 Uda powder
3.8 Uhiokirihio powder
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND OF
THE STUDY
In Nigeria a wide variety of plants abound which have
both medicinal and nutritional importance Akindahunsi and Salawu, (2005).
Plants are being used as valuable source of food and medicine for prevention of
illness and maintenance of human health. Over the years, plant extracts and
plant-derived medicines have made an immense contribution to the overall health
and wellbeing of man, Anyanwu, and Nwosu, (2014). In 1978, World Health
Organization emphasized the importance of scientific research into herbal
medicine. Herbs and spices are functional foods, they have beneficial effect on
certain target functions in the body beyond basic nutritional requirements,
Lobo et al (2010). The importance of
plants in medicine remains even of greater relevance with the current global
shift to obtain drugs from plant sources as a result of which attention has
been given to the medicinal value of herbal remedies for safety, efficacy and
economy. Herbs and spices have been long used in ancient civilization for
culinary, medicinal and cosmetic uses. With modernization and the development
of patent medicines, the use of natural cures and elixirs decrease in
population.
Chemical compounds in plants mediate their effect in
the human body through processes identical to those already well understood for
the chemical compounds in conventional drugs thus herbal medicines do not
differ greatly from conventional drugs in terms of how they work. This enables
herbal medicines to be as effective as conventional medicines but also gives
them the same potential to cause harmful side effects (Tapsell et al., 2006.).
The use of these plants in medicine
is due to the presence of bioactive constituents such as phenols, flavonoids,
tannins and alkaloids, present either in the seeds, leaves, stems or roots
(Tapsell et al., 2006)
Spices are defined as those aromatic plants and their
parts, fresh or dried, whole or ground, that are primarily used to impart
flavor and fragrances to foods and drinks (Adegoke et al., 2003).
According
to the U.S. Food and Drugs Administration (FDA), spice is an aromatic vegetable
substance in whole, broken or ground form, the significant function of which in
food is seasoning rather than nutrition and from which no portion of any
volatile oil or other flavoring principle has been removed ( Sodipo et al. 2000). The term is used in a wide
sense and includes the culinary herbs. Originally added to change or improve
taste, spices and herbs can also enhance shelf life because of their
antioxidant and antimicrobial nature. Some of these substances are also known to
contribute to the shelf – defense of plants against infectious organisms (Kim et al., 2001). In Nigeria, a high
proportion of the rural and urban population resort to natural food ingredients,
particularly because of their availability. Spices are large ingredients and
include dried seeds, fruits, roots, rhizomes, barks, leaves, flowers and any
other vegetative substance used in a very small quantity as food additives to
color, flavor or preserve food (Chinwndu et
al., 2016). Spices are fragrant,
aromatic and pleasant. Common indigenous spices in Nigeria include Negro
pepper, West African pepper, Mentha
piperita, Ocimum gratissimum, Tetrapleura tetraptera. However, unlike
the exotic spices most of these Nigerian spices have not been fully exploited
for their active ingredients responsible for these rare antioxidant and
antimicrobial activities. Most of these spices are wholly used in their
localities. This work
reviews three piquant spices; Piper
guineense, Xylopia aethiopica,
and Tetrapleura tetraptera common in
the culinary of the Southern part of Nigeria. White yam (Dioscorea rotundata) will be incorporated in these spices which
will serve as a thickener. These spices have sharp aroma and flavour highly
perceived by the sense of smell. The piper
guieense (uziza) is the most pungent and flavorful of all other leafy
vegetables and the fruits and leaves are used as spices for preparing soups for
post parturient women. It is believed that the P. guineense stimulates the production of hydrochloric acid in the
stomach and promotes the health of the digestive tract. Plant based
antimicrobials have enormous therapeutic potentials as they can serve the
purpose with lesser side effects that are often associated with synthetic
antimicrobials (Iwu et al., 1999).
Unlike
their exotic counterparts, the essential oils and oleoresins of these spices
have not been produced industrially and are not found in the international
market.
1.2 STATEMENT OF
THE PROBLEM
Information on the physicochemical and antioxidant
properties of many exotic spices abounds in literature, and this promotes their
use internationally as components of functional foods to promote health. Such
information is limited on most indigenous Nigerian spices and this limit their
use internationally as food ingredients for post parturient women and
functional ingredients. Piper guieense
(uziza), Xylopia aethiopica (uda) and Tetrapleura
tetraptera (uhiokirihio) are some
of such common indigenenous spices that are underutilized locally, it is
therefore necessary to evaluate and determine their bioactivity and antioxidant
potentials as well as to variegate their use as instant (pepper- soup) mix and
as culinary spices that contain active ingredients that promote health of post
parturient women and reduce the risk of diseases. Chinwendu et al., 2016.
1.3 JUSTIFICATION
The limited knowledge of the antioxidant and bioactive
properties of these herbs and spices mostly as an instant have not been
elucidated and as such triggered this research interest. This study will
re-orient post parturient women on some nutritional composition of these local
spices. It is assumed that the result of this study will help in exploiting the
bioactive, nutraceutical and therapeutic potentials of instant (pepper-soup) flour
mix produced from Nigerian culinary herbs and spices.
1.4 AIMS AND
OBJECTIVES
The broad objective of the study was to determine the
bioactive potential of yam (Dioscorea
rotundata), Uziza (Piper guieense), Uda (Xylopia aethiopica), and Uhikirihio (Tetrapleura
tetraptera) “pepper-soup” flour mix.
The
specific objectives of the study were to:
•
Produce instant flour
from yam, uziza, uda, and uhiokirihio.
•
Formulate the sample
blends
•
Evaluate the
phytochemical, antioxidant properties and the proximate composition of yam, uziza, uda, and uhiokirihio “pepper-
soup” flour mix
•
Evaluate the sensory
attributes of the samples.
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