ABSTRACT
The bioactive ingredients of three Nigerian spices: Cocoplum (Chysobalanus icaco), African black pepper (Piper guineense) and Aidan fruit (Tetrapleura tetraptera) blends were comparatively assessed in this study. The spices were separately washed with cold water, air dried at room temperature (27±2)oC ,milled, sieved (2mm) and formulated into 9 samples :20:15:65, 56:24:20, 75:15:10, 0:0:100, 47:42:11, 100:0:0, 47:15:38, 29:25:46 and 0:100:0% Cocoplum, African black pepper and Aidan fruit spices) as derived from mixture design of Design Expert-6.0.8 Software. The spices were subjected to proximate, mineral, vitamin, antioxidant and bioactive analysis in duplicates using standard analytical methods. Analysis of variance was carried out on the data obtained using Statistical Package of Social Science version 17.0. Result of proximate analysis revealed the moisture content(8.83 to 14.62%),crude protein(5.41 to 10.92%),crude fibre (0.95 to 8.5%),fat (6.37 to11.55%),ash(3.84to10.34%)and carbohydrate(52.62 to 71.45%)content of the spices. The mineral content of the spices showed that phosphorus ranged from 14.63 to 87.93mg/100g,calcium ranged from 19.77 to54.04mg/100g,magnesium ranged from 15.03 to 34.24mg/100g,sodium ranged from 5.86 to18.77mg/100g,whereas iron, manganese and potassium within 1.27 to 3.51mg/100g,4.38 to 21.68 mg/100g manganese, and 10.44 to54.63 mg/100g respectively. Result of vitamin content revealed the pro-vitamin A (1.56 to 7.07 µg/100g), thiamin(0.25 to9.04 mg/100g),riboflavin(0.38 to 4.52 mg/100g), ascorbic acid (0.74 to16.39 mg/100g).The bioactive compounds of the spices revealed that tannin ranged from 0.37 to1.74 mg/100g,flavonoid ranged from 2.06 to 5.82 mg/100g,alkaloid ranged from 1.63 to 4.06 mg/100g,phenol ranged from 0.33 to 1.05 mg/100g,saponin ranged from 0.65 to 2.02 mg/100g, steroid ranged from 0.13 to 0.40 mg/100g,terpenoid ranged from 0.12 to 0.38 mg/100g,whereas trypsin inhibitor ranged from 0.15 to 0.43 mg/100g.Result of the antioxidant properties showed that FRAP ranged from 10.07 to 20.77 mg/100g whereas DPPH ranged within10.52 to 40.28%.It can be deduced from this study that nutritious spices can be processed from blends of Indigenous and underutilized crops like Cocoplum, African black pepper and Aidan fruit.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Cover Page i
Title page ii
Declaration iii
Certification iv
Dedication
v
Acknowledgments vi
Table of Contents vii
List of Tables xi
List of Plates xii
Abstract xiii
CHAPTER 1:
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of study 1
1.2 Statement of Problems 2
1.3 Justification 3
1.4 Objective of the study 3
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 General overview of spices 4
2.2 Values of spices 5
2.2.1 Health benefits of Spices 9
2.2.1.1 Cardiovascular disease 9
2.2.1.2 Cancer 12
2.2.1.3 Mental health and cognition 14
2.2.1.4 Type 2
diabetes mellitus 16
2.2.1.5
Osteoarthritis and inflammatory response 18
2.2.2 Dietary implications of spices 19
2.2.2.1 Food
variety and diversity 19
2.2.2.2 Herbs
and spices Increase bioavailability of other nutrients 20
2.2.3 Antioxidant properties of traditional
spices 21
2.3 Cocoplum (Chysobalanus icaco) 22
2.3.1 Description of cocoplum seed (Chysobalanus
icaco) 23
2.3.2 Scientific classification
25
2.4 African Black Pepper (Piper guineense) 26
2.4.1 Description of African black pepper (Piper
guineense)
26
2.4.2 Uses of African black pepper (Piper
guineense} 26
2.4.3 Nutritional composition of African black
pepper (Piper guineense)
28
2.4.4 Antioxidating & preservative properties
of African black pepper (Piper guineense)29
2.4.5 Phytochemistry of African black pepper (Piper
guineense)
30
2.4.6 Scientific classification of African black
pepper (Piper guineense) 31
2.5 Aidan Fruits (Tetrapleura
tetraptera)
31
2.5.1 Description of Aidan fruit (Tetrapleura
tetraptera) 32
2.5.2 Uses of Aidan fruit (Teirapleura
tetraptera)
33
2.5.2 Nutritional composition of Aidan fruit (Tetrapleura
tetraptera) 34
2.5.3 Scientific classification of Aidan fruit (Tetrapleura
tetraptera) 35
2.6 Bioactive Ingredients
35
2.6.1 Flavonoids
36
2.6.1.1 Benefits
and uses of flavonoids
37
2.7 Carotenoids (Pro-Vitamin A)
38
2.8. Tannin
40
2.8.1 Benefits and Uses of tannin
41 CHAPTER 3:
MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1 Materials/Sources of Materials
45
3.2 Sample Preparation
46
3.2.1 Sample Formulation
46
3.3 Proximate Determination
48
3.3.1 Determination of protein content
48
3.3.2 Fat content determination
49
3.3.3 Total Ash determination
49
3.3.4 Crude Fiber determination 50
3.3.5 Moisture Content determination
50
3.3.6 Carbohydrate determination
51
3.4 Vitamin
and Mineral Content Determination
52
3.4.1 Determination of Pro - vitamin A
(Carotene)
52
3.4.2 Determination
of vitamin C
53
3.4.3 Determination of Thiamine (Vitamin Bi) 53
3.4.4 Determination of Riboflavin (Vitamin B2) 54
3.5 Determination Mineral Content 54
3.5.1 Determination of phosphorus content
54
3.5.2 Determination of calcium and magnesium
55
3.5.3 Determination
of Sodium, Zinc, Iron, Manganese and Potassium Contents 56
3.6 Determination of Bioactive Ingredients
(Phytochemicals) 57
3 .6. 1 Determination of tannin contents
57
3.6.2 Determination of flavonoid contents 58
3.6.3 Determination of alkaloid contents 58
3.6.4 Determination of trypsin inhibitor
contents 59
3.6.5 Determination of Saponin contents
61
3.6.6 Determination of steroid contents
61
3.6.7 Determination of phenol contents 62
3.6.8 Determination of terpenoid contents 63
3.7 Determination of Antioxidant
Contents 63
3.7.1 DPPH Radical Scavenging Activity 63
3.7.2 Ferric Reducing Antioxidant Power Assay
(FRAP) 64
3.8 Statistical
Analysis
64
CHAPTER 4:
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
4.1 Proximate Composition of the Spice
Samples 65
4.1.1 Moisture composition of the spice
samples
65
4.1.2 Protein composition of the spice
samples
67
4.1.3 Crude fibre composition of the spice
samples
68
4.1.4 Fat composition of the spice samples
69
4.1.5 Ash composition of the spice samples
70
4.1.6 Carbohydrate content of the spice
71
4.2 Mineral Composition of the Spice
Samples 72
4.2.1 Phosphorus composition of the spice
74
4.2.2 Calcium composition of the spice
samples
75
4.2.3 Magnesium composition of the spice
75
4.2.4 Zinc content of spices
76
4.2.5 Iron content of spices
77
4.2.6 Potassium content of spices
78
4.2.7 Manganese content of spices
79
4.3 Vitamin
content of spices, Cocoplum, African Black Pepper and Aidan Fruit blends 80
4.3.1 Pro - vitamin A content of spices 80
4.3.2 Thiamin content of spices
83
4.3.3 Riboflavin content of the spices 83
4.3.4 Ascorbic acid content of the spices 84
4.4 Bioactive Compounds of Spices; Cocoplum,
African Black Pepper and Aidan
Fruit Blend 85
4.4.1 Tannin content of the spices
86
4.4.2 Flavonoid content of the spices
88
4.4.3 Alkaloid content of the spices
88
4.4.4 Phenol content of the spices 89
4.4.5 Saponin content of the spices
90
4.4.6 Steroid content of the spices
91
4.4.7 Terpenoid content of the spices
92
4.4.8 Trypsin inhibitor content of the
spices
93
4.5 Antioxidant Properties of Spices;
Cocoplum, African Pepper, and Aidan
Fruit Blends
94
4.5.1 FRAP radical scavenging ability of the
spices
94
4.5.2 DPPH radical scavenging ability of the
spices
97 CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION
AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Conclusion 173
5.2 Recommendation
174
References
175
Appendices
200
LIST OF TABLES
2.1 Binomial nomenclature of Cocoplum (Chysobalanus
icaco) 25
2.2 Binomial nomenclature of African Black Pepper
(Piper guineense) 31
2.3 Binomial nomenclature of Aidan fruit (Tetrapleura
tetraptera) 35
3.1: Mixture
formulations of spice blends from Mixture Design 47
4.1: The comparative
nutritional composition of spices; Cocoplum
(Chysobalanus icaco), African
black pepper (Piper guineense)
and Aidan fruit (Tetrapleura tetraptera) blends 66
4.2: Mineral
composition of spices; Cocoplum (Chysobalanus icaco),
African black pepper (Piper guineense) and Aidan fruit
(Tetrapleura
tetraptera) blends 74
4.3: Vitamin
composition of spices; Cocoplum (Chysobalanus icaco),
African black pepper (Piper guineense) and Aidan fruit
(Tetrapleura tetraptera) blends 82
4.4: Bioactive
compounds of spices; Cocoplum (Chysobalanus icaco),
African black pepper (Piper guineense) and Aidan
fruit
(Tetrapleura tetraptera) blends 87
4.5: Antioxidant
properties of spices; Cocoplum (Chysobalanus icaco),
African pepper (Piper guineense) and
Aidan fruit (Tetrapleura tetraptera)
Blends African
black 96
LIST OF PLATES
1: Cocoplum (Chysobalanus
icaco)
45
2: African black
pepper (Piper guineense)
45
3: Aidan fruit (Tetrapleura
tetrapterd)
45
4: Blend of cocoplum,
African black pepper and Aidan fruits spices 46
CHAPTER
1
INTRODUCTION
BACKGROUND OF STUDY
Bioactive ingredients/compounds are types of chemicals found in
small amount in plants such as fruits, vegetables, nuts, seeds, oils and whole
grains that provide health benefits beyond the basic nutritional value (Gokmen,
2016). These compounds have actions in the body that may present therapeutic
potential with influence on energy intake, reducing pro-inflamatory conditions,
oxidative stress and metabolic disorders (Siriwardhana et al., 2013).They otherwise promote good health. There are several
bioactive ingredients in both plants and animals,however, studies indicate that
consuming foods that are rich in bioactive ingredients at a higher rate have
positive effect on humans and could prevent risk of numerous diseases such as
cancer,heart disease,stroke,diabetes,cataracts and age related functional
problems (Hassimotto et al,
2009).Some of these bioactive ingredients include lycopene, tannins,
flavonoids, carotenoids, phytosterols, steroids, phenols and polyphenols,
anthocyanins, alkaloids, terpenes etc.These compounds (bioactive ingredients)
according to (Carbonell-Capella et al;
2014) are capable of modulating metabolic processes and show positive
properties such as antioxidant effect, inhibition of receptor activities,
inhibition of enzymes and induction of gene expression. These ingredients could
as well be found in most of our indigenous spices, if not all.
Spices as the name implies, according to FDA, (2015) are aromatic
vegetable substances, in whole, broken or ground form whose significant
function in food is seasoning rather than nutrition. Spices are mainly used to
improve the sensory characteristics of foods and beverages (Gunasekar et al., 2012).However, most of the
common spices are usually extracted from plants grown in warm or tropical
climates while herbal plants can be grown in nearly all conditions and
geographical areas around the world,spices have more intense taste as used in
small amount (Ranton,2004).They are known to have beneficial effects for humans
including digestive stimulant, anti-infamatory, antimicrobial, antioxidant and
anticarcinogenic activities mostly attributed to the polyphenols and other
constituents which contribute to the plant's biological activity resulting in
benefits for human health and this health benefits are mediated by their
ability to prevent free radical formation, remove radicals, repair oxidative
damage, eliminate damaged molecules by their antioxidant ability (Gordon,1996).The
spice antioxidant activity is related to variety of chemical compounds. The
most effective antioxidants act by interrupting the free chain reaction. These
compounds donate H+
radicals to the free radicals formed during oxidation becoming radicals
themselves that are stabilized by the resonance delocalization of the electron
within the aromatic ring(Nawar,1996).Many of the phenolics also lack positions
suitable for molecular oxygen attack or quench free radical oxygen
(Brewer,2011).
1.2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM
There is little or no knowledge in the comparartive assessment of
the nutrient composition and bioactive ingredient levels of herbs and spices as
they are only seen from functional food perspective and usage in diet. The use
of these indigenous and non-indigenous spices are normally inherited from tradition which
vary from community to community in Africa as such, it is paramount to
establish the nutrient, bioactive ingredient compositions of these spices as
this will help to make bettwe use of them in promoting health of consumers.
Nutrient composition, bioactive activity and antioxidant activities of
Cocoplum, African black pepper and Aidan fruit blends are paramount for their
effective utilization.
1.3 JUSTIFICATION
Considering the problems posed on human health, studies on nutrient
composition, bioactive and antioxidant properties of these commonly used Cocoplum (Chysobalanus
icaco), African black pepper (Piper
guineese) and Aidan fruit(Tetrapleura
tetraptera) blends will bring out their real value in food and even
medicinal application. This study is not only expected to provide comparative
assessment to consumers of the spices on bioactive and antioxidant activities
but also create general awareness of their nutritional potentials. This would form a basis for improved
utilization of these spices as food ingredients. The information will also help food
professionals to develop of novel products. The
information will also create awareness and encourage the use of these spices at
local and industrial levels.
1.4 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The main objective of this work is to comparatively assess, the
bioactive ingredients of three Nigerian spices; Cocoplum (Chysobalanus icaco), African black pepper (Piper guineese) and Aidan fruit (Tetrapleura tetraptera) blends.
The specific objectives are
to:
i.
Formulation of the blends
ii.
Determine the proximate
composition of Cocoplum (Chysobalanus icaco), African black
pepper (Piper guineese) and
Aidan fruit (Tetrapleura tetraptera)
blends.
iii.
Determine the mineral and
vitamin contents of Cocoplum (Chysobalanus icaco), African black
pepper(Piper guineese) and
Aidan fruit (Tetrapleura tetraptera)
blends.
iv.
Determine the bioactive
ingredients of Cocoplum (Chysobalanus icaco),African black
pepper(Piper guineese) and
Aidan fruit(Tetrapleura tetraptera)
blends.
v.
Assess the antioxidant
activities of the spice blends.
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