ABSTRACT
The research was carried out to evaluate the nutrient composition and sensory evaluation of bread produced from carrot, fermented maize and tiger nut residue flour blends. Fermented Maize and tiger nut residue and carrot were processed into flour and mixed with wheat flour for bread production. Four samples of bread were produced: bread from wheat flour 100% denoted as BW, 50% wheat flour, 30% tiger nut residue flour and 20% carrot flour denoted as BWTC, 50% wheat flour, 30% maize residue flour and 20% carrot flour denoted as BWMC, and 40% wheat flour, 25% maize residue flour, 25% tiger nut residue flour and 10% carrot flour denoted as BWMTC. Bread made from 100% wheat flour was the control. The result of the proximate composition showed that the moisture content of bread made from 100% wheat flour was higher than others with a significant difference (p<0.05) and was least in bread made from wheat, maize residue and carrot flour. Protein contents was least in bread made from 100% wheat flour (10.50%) and highest in bread made from wheat, tiger nut residue and carrot flour ( 13.10%) . The fat contents was least in bread made from 100% wheat flour (6.15%) and highest in maize residue and carrot flour ( 17.71%), dietary fibre was least in bread made from 100% wheat flour (1.51%) and highest in bread made from wheat, maize residue and carrot flour ( 3.19%),ash was least in bread made from 100% wheat flour (2.66%) and highest in bread made from wheat, maize residue and carrot flour and bread made from wheat, tiger nut residue and carrot flour ( 3.43%), and carbohydrate contents was highest in bread made from 100% wheat flour (78.22%) and least in bread made from wheat, maize residue and carrot flour ( 64.65%) The result of the mineral and vitamin content revealed that β-carotene was highest in bread made from wheat, maize residue and carrot flour and calcium was highest in bread made from wheat, tiger nut residue and carrot flour. The values of magnesium increased significantly in bread made from wheat, maize residue, tiger nut residue and carrot flour and was lowest in bread made from 100% wheat flour and in phosphorus there was no significant different between the all the samples except the control. The result of the sensory properties showed that there was no significant difference in the appearance and taste of 100% wheat bread and bread made from wheat, maize residue and carrot flour. The 100% wheat bread recorded the highest scores in all the parameters evaluated however all the other samples were well accepted. Bread made from wheat, tiger nut residue and carrot flour and bread made from wheat, maize residue, tiger nut residue and carrot flour had the least general acceptability.
TABLE
OF CONTENTS
Title page i
Certification ii
Dedication iii
Acknowledgements iv
Table of Contents v
List of Tables ix
List of Figures x
Abstract xi
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1
1.1
Statement of Problem 5
1.2
Objectives of the Study 7
1.3
Significance of the Study 8
CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF
RELATED LITERATURE
2.1 Bread Consumption and Production
Statistics 9
2.2 Bread Consumption and Health 11
2.3 Dietary Fibre and Health 12
2.3.1 Potential
Sources of Dietary Fiber for Food Processing Industries from
food
residue 17
2.3.1.1 Apples 17
2.4 Carrot (Daucus carota L.) 18
2.5 Corn 25
2.6 Application of Dietary Fiber (DF) in
Bread 26
2.6.1 Effect of Dietary Fiber (DF) on Physical
Parameters of Bread 27
2.6.1.1 Yield, Volume, Moisture Loss 27
2.6.1.2 Texture 28
2.6.1.3 Colour 30
2.6.2 Effect of DF on Shelf-Life of Bread 31
2.6.3 Effect of DF on Sensory Characteristics of
Bread 32
CHAPTER 3: MATERIALS AND
METHODS
3.1 Experimental Design 34
3.2 Raw Material Collection 34
3.3 Sample Preparations 34
3.3.1 Preparation of Tiger Nut and Maize Residue
Flour 34
3.3.2 Preparation of Carrot flour 38
3.3.3 Formulation of composite flour 40
3.3.4 Method of Bread Preparation 41
3.4 Chemical
Analysis 42
3.4.1 Proximate
Composition of Bread Samples 42
3.4.1.1
Determination of moisture content 42
3.4.1.2 Protein
Content 43
3.4.1.3 Fat
Content 44
3.4.1.4 Ash
content 44
3.4.1.5 Total dietary fiber 45
3.4.1.6 Carbohydrate
determination 46
3.4.1.7 Determination of energy value 46
3.4.2 Mineral
Composition 47
3.4.2.1 Determination
of calcium and magnesium 47
3.4.2.2 Determination of phosphorus 48
3.4.3 Vitamin
Composition 49
3.4.3.1 Determination
of vitamin B1 (thiamine) 49
3.4.3.2
Determination of Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin) 50
3.4.3.3 Determination of Vitamin B3 (Niacin) 51
3.4.3.4 Determination of Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid) 52
3.4.4 Anti-nutritional factors /phytochemical 52
3.4.4.1 Tannin 52
3.4.4.2 Oxalate determination 53
3.4.4.3 β Carotene 54
3.4.4.4 Flavonoid compounds determination: 54
3.5 Sensory
Evaluation of Bread Samples 55
3.6 Statistical
Analysis 55
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND
DISCUSSION
4.1 Proximate
Composition 56
4.2 Mineral Content of
the Bread Samples 62
4.3 Vitamin
Composition 65
4.4 Photochemical/Anti-Nutrient
Composition of the Bread Samples 69
4.5 Sensory
Evaluations of Bread Produced From Wheat Flour, Maize, Tiger Nut
Residue
Flour and Carrot Flour 72
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Conclusion 77
5.2 Recommendation 78
REFERENCES 79
APPENDICES 93
LIST
OF TABLES
Table
3.1 Formulation of Composite Flour
for Bread percentage (%) 40
Table
3.2 Formulation of Composite Flour
for Bread per 500g 40
Table 4.1 Proximate Composition 61
Table 4.2 Mineral Composition 64
Table 4.3 Vitamin Composition 68
Table 4.4 Phytochemical/Antinutrient Composition of the Samples 71
Table
4.5 Sensory Evaluation Table 76
LIST
OF FIGURES
Fig
3.1: Flow chart for the production of
maize residue flour 36
Fig
3.2: Flow chart for the production of
tiger nut residue flour 37
Fig
3.3: Flow chart for the production of
carrot flour 39
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Bakery industry is one of the large growing food industries in the world
(Monika et al., 2019) Bakery products
such as bread, biscuits, and cookies are most popular bakery items (Nawaz,
2019). Baked products are widely consumed by adults and children. These baked
products includes bread, biscuits, cookies, pizza, meatpie and sausage
rolls. Most bakery products are prepared
from refined wheat flour and due to their increased consumption they are
raising health issues like constipation, obesity and other chronic diseases
which has led to the demand for the food rich in dietary fiber, vitamins,
minerals and protein other than the major carbohydrates (Monika et al., 2019). Most of these baked
products such as bread, cookies, and biscuits are consumed in large quantities
worldwide and they are low in fiber minerals, vitamins and protein. For this
reasons interest in research has been developed in increasing fiber, minerals,
vitamin and protein content in diet.
Production of bakery products
holds an important place in food industry and is on the increase with wide
range of consumers probably because they are ready to eat, thus reducing the
stress of making them from scratch (Monika et
al., 2019).At the global level the incidence of diabetes and obesity are
increasing exponentially due to food habits, and to overcome them, there is a
raise in demand for food containing complex carbohydrate with higher levels of
dietary fiber and beneficial phytochemicals (Monika et al., 2019). The current trend is to create bakery products that
are beneficial for health. Recently dietary fiber is considered a very
important ingredient in bakery products (Monika et al., 2019). It is helpful in reducing gastrointestinal pain;
reduce the risk of various cancers, fat absorption from the digestive tract and
reduce the risk of obesity and its related diseases such as cardiovascular
diseases and diabetes mellitus.
Bread is a staple food that closely related to people’s daily life
(Ibrahim et al., 2015). Bread is
popular around the world and one of the oldest foods. It is prepared by baking dough which consists
of flour, leavening agents and water.
Recently, the consumers’ trends has been shifted towards food with more
natural antioxidants, dietary fiber, natural color and flavor, minerals, vitamins
and free of synthetic additives (Nahidur et
al., 2020). This is why diets rich in fruits and vegetables are gaining
importance as they have a more balanced dietary fiber profile in terms of
soluble and insoluble dietary fiber. Peels are the major by-products obtained
during the processing of various fruits and vegetables and these have shown to
be a good source of dietary fibers and other bioactive compounds. However,
these plant by-products can be utilized in various industries as novel, low-cost,
economical and natural sources of dietary fiber, antioxidants, pectin, enzymes,
organic acids, food additives and essential oils through different methods of
extraction, purification and fermentation (Kodagoda et al., 2017).
Tiger-nut (Cyperus esculentus)
also called sedge, chufa, earth-almond, nutgrass and nutsedge is a crop of the
sedge family widespread across much of the world (Akajiaku et al., 2018). It is a root crop which grows widely in wet places
as grass and is sometimes cultivated for its small and sweet tubers. There are
three varieties namely black, brown and yellow. Among these only two varieties
(the yellow and brown) are readily available in the market, and the yellow
variety is preferred because of its inherent properties of bigger size,
attractive colour and fleshier nature (Gambo and Da’u, 2014). In Nigeria,
tigernut is known as ‘Aya’ in Hausa, ‘Ofio’ in Yoruba, and ‘Akiausa’ in Igbo
where these varieties (black, brown and yellow) are cultivated (Umerie et al., 1997). Tigernut produces
high-quality oil protein (Adejuyitan, 2011), and an excellent source of some
useful minerals (iron, calcium phosphorus, potassium, sodium, magnesium, zinc
and traces of copper) and vitamin E that are essential for body growth and
development (Oaldale and Aina, 2007; Adejuyitan, 2011). It is said to be
aphrodisiac, carminative, diuretic, emmanogogue stimulant and tonic and also
plays a role in the treatment of flatulence, indigestion, diarrhea, dysentery
and excessive thirst (Adejuyitan, 2011). Tigernut can be eaten raw as a snack
or crushed with the resulting white paste made into porridge or processed into
refreshing beverage drinks (Akajiaku et
al., 2018). It can also be processed into flour. When it is used to produce
beverage drinks, the residue got from it after it has been sieved can be
incorporated in diets to improve their nutritional contents.
Maize (Zea-mays) flour which is obtained from the grains of maize plant
is the second most produced and consumed flour after wheat flour (Patience et al 2019). It is uniquely rich in
dietary fibre, protein, vitamin B6, magnesium and omega 6 oils, as well as
vital for good heart, optional bowel functions and fight against infections. It
is relatively less expensive to buy and can be used to prepare different food
products like the cornmeal, bread, pancake etc. Maize is rich in B1 (thiamine), B2 (niacin), vitamin C, A and K
together with a large amount of beta-carotene and a fair amount of selenium
that helps to improve thyroid gland and play important role in the proper
functioning of the immune system (Rai et
al., 2017). Maize is highly rich in carbohydrates and releases energy
slowly in the bloodstream ensuring that you stay energized whole day. It is a
potent antioxidant that guards the body against harm by free radicals
responsible for cellular damage and/or cancer (Rai et al., 2017).
During the process of production of pap or “ogi” and other products which
involves the fermentation of maize, in order to get the final results the maize
are being wet milled and sieved and the smooth solute which are called pap and
ogi are taken as the final products, the residue are most times disposed or
used as feed for animals or manure for plants. Maize is uniquely rich in
dietary fibre (Patience et al 2019).
Also during the production of tiger nut drink beverage, it involves
fermentation, wet milling and sieving. In order to get the final product the
fiber which is the residue is isolated. Both residue can be incorporated into
daily meals in form of bread, cookies and biscuit in order to increase their
fiber content.
1.4 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM
Malnutrition can be caused by deficiencies, excesses, imbalances in an
individual’s consumption of nutrients (World Health Organization 2018).
Malnutrition can be under nutrition or over nutrition (Sufiyan, 2012).
Malnutrition causes Nigeria billions in lost revenue through reduced economic
productivity, days away from work due to illness and money spent on treating
ailments (World Bank, 2014). The negative impact of malnutrition are seen in
families and communities in various aspects such as economically, socially and
medically (World Health Organization 2018).
Obesity being a product of malnutrition is defined by the World Health
Organisation, as a body Mass Index (BMI) ≥30 kg/m (World Health Organization, 2010; 2012). Obesity is
gradually assuming an epidemic dimension in the world with Nigeria also having
its own share of the burden (Popkin, 2012).This current
trend of obesity has been attributed to the socio-economic and epidemiological
transition of Nigeria from a lower income country to a middle income country;
resulting in the change of lifestyle behaviours and dietary intake. As a result
many Nigerians now live sedentary lifestyle while at the same time consuming
diet with excess calories (Iloh, et
al., 2011); thus, resulting in high energy intake with low energy expenditure among most adult Nigerians and
increasing the risk of developing dietary related non-communicable diseases
such as diabetes mellitus and cardiovascular diseases.
Due to the high rate of the use of imported wheat which is cultivated in
the tropical region, this makes bakery production expensive (Olaoye et al., 2006). Therefore the advocate
for the use of composite flour in which flour from locally available tubers,
cereals and legumes replace wheat flour. Some of these include potatoes,
cassava, sorghum, maize, pearl millet, plantain, acha grain, bambara-nuts
etc. Due to the increased rate of bread
consumption which are staple foods in most households, the composite flour
programme promises to save a significant amount of foreign exchange, thereby
providing traditional nutritious food to more people at a lower cost and to
utilize indigenous crops to a greater extent.
The production of bread from carrot, fermented maize and tiger nut
residue flour blend will help increase the fiber content of this widely
consumed products there by reducing the calories and making it more healthy for
consumption and this because part of the flour will be replaced with this blend
and also help increase the micronutrient and dietary fiber content of the
products there by helping to reduce the micro nutrient deficiencies and obesity
which will in turn reduce the risk of dietary related non-communicable
diseases.
1.5 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The general objective of the study is to produce and
evaluate the nutritional content and sensory properties of bread produced from
carrot, fermented maize and tiger nut residue flour blend.
The specific objectives includes
1.
Produce bread from carrot, fermented maize and tiger nut residue flour
2.
To evaluate the proximate composition of bread baked from carrot,
fermented maize and tiger nut residue flour.
3.
To evaluate the dietary fiber of the bread baked from carrot, fermented
maize and tiger nut residue flour.
4.
To evaluate the vitamin and mineral composition of the bread baked from
carrot, fermented maize and tiger nut residue flour.
5.
To determine the sensory properties of the bread produced from the flour
blends and commercial bread.
1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
The result of the study will be beneficial to
both adult and children by helping them increase the dietary fiber content of
their food which will reduce the risk of obesity and its associate diseases.
The findings of this study will promote the use of residue got from the
production of pap and tiger nut drink by the baking industry which will help
reduce their dependence on wheat flour thereby introducing variety to the
industry and reduce the waste generated from the production of tiger nut drinks
and pap. It will also help increase the nutritional content got from this
widely consumed products by increasing the micronutrient in the body thereby
reducing Vitamin A deficiency, also improve the rate of consumption of dietary
fiber thereby reducing obesity and other diet related non-communicable diseases
and reduce the wastage of the residue of the fermented maize and tiger nut.
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