ABSTRACT
This research
work “microbial resistance of B-lactam antibiotic” is proposed to discover
microbial resistance of antibiotic and to determine if there is resistance to
the two B-lactam drugs mostly self medicated with. Antibiotics are organic
substances which are produced by microorganisms and are capable at low
concentration of inhibiting the growth of or destroying another microorganism.
Bacterial resistance to antibiotics refers to the insensitivity of bacteria to
the antimicrobial actions of a given antibiotic. Bacterial resistance is so
widespread and fatally dangerous that it has become a worldwide problem that presents
therapeutic dilemmas to physicians from all regions. The various materials
utilize in the cause of this research work includes; conical flask, beaker, measuring
cylinder, weighing balance, Pipette, Filter paper, Plastic/disposable petri
dishes, Isopropyl alcohol, Autoclave, distilled water, Nose/face covering,
needle and syringe, EDTA bottle, microscope, incubator, glass slides, source of
electricity, wire loop, laboratory wear, forceps and bunsen burner. Chemicals
and Reagents which were used in this research includes; nutrient agar, blood
Agar, Safranine, crystal violet, Iodine and urine. The gram stain test was
carried out to determine the bacterial spectrum, other test such as the indole
test was carried out to determine the ability of an organism to produce indole
from the degradation of the amino acid tryptophan. Finally the oxidase test was
carried out to determine if an organism possess the cytochrome oxidase enzymes.
When the media plate of blood agar was viewed with the aid of the microscope,
it was observed that a heavy growth of grain positive organisms were presence.
The result of the media plate of nutrient agar and the task drug which was
observed through the microscope shows that the plate of nutrient agar of ampiclox
have a heavy growth of the isolated organism. The other plate of nutrient agar
of amoxil also shows a heavy growth of the isolated organism. Hence, this
clearly indicates that the organisms are resistant to the task drug which the
ampicillin + cloxacillin. The aims and objectives of this research work
microbial resistance of B-lactam antibiotic was achieved.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Page i
Declaration ii
Certification iii
Dedication iv
Acknowledgement v
Abstract vi
CHAPTER ONE:
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study 1
1.2 Statement of Problem 5
1.3 Aims and Objectives 6
1.4 Scope of the Study 6
1.5 Limitations of the Study 6
1.6 Definition of Terms 6
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURES
2.1 History
of Antibiotics 9
2.2 Overview
of Beta-lactam Antibiotics 10
2.2.1 Mechanisms of Actions of Beta-lactam
Antibiotics 10
2.2.2 Amoxicillin 11
2.2.3 Ampicillin 12
2.2.4 Cloxacillin 13
2.3 Mechanisms of Bacterial Resistance to
Antibiotics 14
2.4 Factors that Promote Microbial Resistance
to Antibiotics 15
2.5 Measures to Minimize Drug Resistance 17
2.6 Antibiotic Resistance and Health Care Costs
18
2.7 Drug Dispensers and Drug Quality 21
2.8 Prevention of Antibiotic Resistance 23
CHAPTER THREE: MATERIAL
AND METHODS
3.1 Materials 24
3.2 Chemicals
and Reagents 25
3.3 Drugs Samples 25
3.4 Tests
25
3.5 Procedure
26
3.5.1 Gram
stain 27
3.5.2 Indole
Test 28
3.5.3 Oxidase
Test 28
CHAPTER FOUR: OBSERVATION AND RESULT
4.1
Observation 30
4.2 Results 30
CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION
AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1 Conclusion
32
5.2 Recommendation 33
REFERENCES
34
CHAPTER
ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
of the Study
In the golden age of
the discovery of antibiotics, these potent “miracle” drugs saved millions of
lives. In contrast, we are entering an era where bacterial infections, such as
bloodstream infections and ventilator-associated pneumonia, might no longer be
successfully treated with antibiotics (Carlet, et al., 2015).
The most commonly used
antibiotic drugs are amoxillin, penicillin and ampicillin cloxacillin; bilactim
is also an antibiotic drugs that is mostly consumed, it contains cefixime as
its active ingredient. It is used in treating bacterial infections of the
urinary tract, lungs, throat, airways, tonsils, middle ear. It is also
effective for typhoid (enteric) fever and gonorrhea. (https://pharmeasy.in/online-medicine-order/bilactam-200mg-tab-91187). The self-medication of the above listed antibiotic
drugs and the incomplete use of the drugs has made it to be ineffective as
microbial bacterial resistance is likely to develop.
Antibiotics are organic
substances produced by microorganisms and capable at low concentration of
inhibiting the growth of, or destroying another microorganism (Ibezim, 2016).
These drugs have been isolated from numerous sources but principally from
bacteria (tetracyclines, bacitracin, polymyxin, chloramphenicol, streptomycin)
and fungi (cephalosporins, penicillins, Amoxillin and ampicillin
cloxacillin). The increased use of
antibiotics in man and animals and the extension of uses to areas other than
prophylaxis and treatment of diseases have helped to create serious problems.
Bacterial resistance to antibiotics has thus been recognized since the first
drugs were introduced for clinical use. Bacterial resistance to antibiotics
refers to the insensitivity of bacteria to the antimicrobial actions of a given
antibiotic. The organism in question may develop the ability to destroy the
antibiotic or to grow in its presence.
Bacterial resistance is
so widespread and fatally dangerous that it has become a worldwide problem that
presents therapeutic dilemmas to physicians from all regions. The ignorance of
common people on such a vital subject and a lack of an alternative to these
antibiotic treatments has turned it into a global crisis. Resistance against
antibiotic drugs is an ecological phenomenon that results from the bacterial
reaction that stems from the irrational overuse of antibiotic drugs (Nathan and
Cars, 2017; French, 2017; Read and Woods, 2017). Self-medication is the most
common reason for the development of human pathogen resistance to antibiotic
drugs (Michael et al., 2017). Rampant irrational antibiotic use and ignorance
of people about the complete knowledge of the course of antibiotics, their side
effects, standard acceptable dosage limits, and antibiotic overdose issues are
the potential reasons for inappropriate or incorrect treatment or even missed
diagnosis and in most cases can lead to microbial resistance issues and
increased morbidity (Michael et al., 2017). Antibiotic overdose can also cause
some other health threats such as skin problems, severe allergies,
hypersensitivity etc. Improved knowledge and more awareness among the
non-medical population about allopathic drugs, especially an understanding of
the usage of antibiotics can help in limiting the microbial resistance issues
globally (Bennadi, 2017).
Increase in antibiotic
resistance (ABR) worldwide, specifically in developing countries, necessitates
the need to pay attention to self-medicated antibiotics, and knowledge and
awareness of ABR (Ventola, 2015). In May 2015, the World Health Assembly
reached an agreement to tackle the menace of ABR globally, and the first
objective was to increase ABR awareness and understanding (WHO, 2015).
Antibiotics are medicines formulated for treatment or prevention of bacterial
infections, administered to patients based on the prescription of a certified
health care professional.
There was evidence to
support the fact that bacteria could pass genes for multiple drug resistance
between strains and even between species. It was also apparent that
Mycobacterium tuberculosis was capable of rapid development of resistance to
streptomy- cin, which has become a main stay in tuberculosis therapy. It is
noteworthy that antibiotic resistance can be single or multiple. Multidrug
resistant tuberculosis is no longer confined to any one country or to those
co-infected with Human Immune Deficiency Virus (HIV), but has appeared in
locations as diverse as Africa, Asia and Eastern Europe, among health care
workers and in the general population (Essential Drug Monitor, 2016). An
increased incidence of resistant organisms in a population exposed to an agent
that affects growth and reproduction can be attributed to the survival and
proliferation of a small fraction of the original population. The resistant
survivors are genetically, structurally, behaviourally and physiologically
different from the majority. When antibiotics are introduced, they will surely
have this effect because by creating a hostile environment for susceptible
pathogen population, they encourage the selective survival and multiplication
of forms against which the antibiotics has little or no effect. This caused
serious concern because it seemed possible that each new antibiotic will lose
its usefulness as pathogenic organisms become resistant to them. This
necessitated the research into the mode of action of antibiotics and the
mechanisms by which their effects are circumvented by resistant organisms. Most
of the microorganisms producing antibiotics are resistant to the action of
their own antibiotics. Although they are affected by other antibiotics, their
antibiotics are effective against closely related strains. It was stipulated
that these antibiotics afford them some nutritional advantage in their habitat
by inhibiting or antagonizing other organism or they act as some sort of
hormone or signal molecule associated with sporulation, dormancy or
germination. The maintenance of a substantial component of the bacterial genome
devoted solely to synthesis of antibiotics leads to the conclusion that the
process or molecule is very important if not essential to the survival of these
organisms in their natural habitat, because antibiotics are rather large, complicated
organic molecules and may require as many as 30 separate enzymatic steps to
synthesize.
In Nigeria, there is
poor regulatory control of antibiotic sales, and purchases can be carried out
without the prescription of a clinician. In addition, there is a preponderance
of counterfeit drugs in the market which makes it difficult to achieve
effective treatment of self-diagnosed illnesses. The spread of ABR is known to
be associated with inadequate dosing, incomplete courses, and counterfeit drugs
which increases the actual cost of treating illnesses and social burden. It is
important that control on sale and self-medication with antibiotics should be
tightened to reduce the problem of ABR. This study tends to elucidate microbial
resistance of antibiotics such as amoxillin, penicillin and
ampicillin-cloxacillin.
1.2 Statement of Problem
Through observation, it is no longer new
that factors which leads to the continued occurrence of bacterial resistance to
antimicrobial agents include; over prescription of antibiotics, use of under
dose, prescribers irrational attitudes, patients demands, self-medication,
inappropriate advertisements and use of antibiotics in agriculture. Hence, the
constant use and under dose of antibiotic drugs has led to microbial antibiotic
resistance. This study therefore is required to elucidate of microbial
resistance of antibiotics such as amoxillin and ampicillin-cloxacillin which
will aid to eliminate over prescription and use of under dose antibiotics.
1.3 Aims and
Objectives
·
To determine if there
is resistance to the two beta-lactam drugs mostly self-medicated with.
·
To know the extent of
resistance of bacteria to these drugs
1.4 Scope of the
Study
·
The study is focused on
bacterial resistance of ampiclox and amoxyil
·
carry out gram stain
and other confirmatory test to establish the bacteria that present resistance
1.5 Limitations of
the Study
In the process of
carryout a research of this nature some factor imitates against the effective
and successful complexions of these project work these include time and finance
because a timeline was given for the submission and presentation of the work.
1.6 Definition of Terms
·
Antibiotics: These are
medicines used to kill bacteria.
·
Bacteria: They are very
small organisms (micro-organisms). They can enter your body. Some of them are
harmless and may be helpful. But some of these germs can be harmful. When these
multiply inside your body, they can cause disease
·
Antibiotic Resistance:
Is the inability of antibiotic drugs to kill germs which has adapt to these
medicines.
·
Self-medication: It is
the selection and use of medicines by individuals (or a member of the
individuals' family) to treat self-recognized or self-diagnosed conditions or
symptoms.
·
Microbial: Refers to as
a very small organism which can cause disease
·
Disease: A disorder of
structure or function in a human, animal, or plant, especially one that
produces specific symptoms or that affects a specific location and is not
simply a direct result of physical injury.
·
Health: It is a state
of being free from illness or injury
·
Drugs: Is any substance
that causes a change in an organism physiology when consumed.
·
Drug Abuse: This refers to the harmful or hazardous use of psychoactive
substance including alcohol and illicit drugs.
·
Drug Misuse: Is the use of prescribed
substance or drug for a purpose not consistent with legal or medical guideline.
·
Symptoms: Is a physical or mental
feature which is regarded as indicating a condition of disease, particularly
such a feature that is apparent to the patient.
·
Prescription: A written direction for
the preparation, compounding, and administration of a medicine.
·
Medicine: It is the
science or practice of the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of disease. It
can also be refers to as a drug or other preparation for the treatment or
prevention of disease.
·
Treatment: Medical care
given to a patient for and illness or injury.
·
Diagnosis: the
identification of the nature of an illness or other problem by examination of
the symptoms.
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