Abstract
The interest in plant remedies has been spurred by several factors including their effectiveness, the high cost and side effects of orthodox medicines.
This study was aimed to determine the antimicrobial activity of two medicinal plants (Chromolaena odorata and Azadirachta indica) against some bacterial pathogens (Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Salmonella typhi), and also to determine the phytochemical content of the two medicinal plants.
The anti-bacterial activity testing of the methanol extracts of the leaves of these plants were done using the agar disc diffusion method to measure the diameter zone of inhibition and broth dilution assay to assess the Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) of the plant extracts against susceptible organisms. The methanol extract of Chromolaena odorata had inhibitory effect against Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhi and methanol extract of Azadirachta indica against Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella typhi. The plant extract of Chromolaena odorata had no inhibitory activity on Pseudomonas aeruginosa while Azadirachta indica had no effect on Escherichia coli. The result of this study confirms the use of theses medicinal plants in treating microbial infection and can serve as source of synthetic drugs.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title page i
Certification ii
Dedication iii
Acknowledgements iv
Table of Contents v
List of Tables viii
Abstract ix
CHAPTER ONE
1.0
INTRODUCTION
1.2 Aims and Objective 3
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Medicinal Plants 4
2.1 Chromolaena odorata 4
2.1.2 Habitat and distribution 4
2.3
Phytochemicals Properties 5
2.3.1
Crytoprotective (antiulcer) 5
2.3.2
Antimicrobial activity 5
2.3.3 Antioxidant 5
2.3.4 Anti-inflammatory, analgesic and
antipyretic activity 6
2.3.5 Wound healing 6
2.3.6 Other medicinal uses 7
2.4 Azadirata indica 7
2.4.1 History 7
2.4.2 Antiviral 8
2.4.3 Pesticidal activity 8
2.4.4 Contraceptive 8
2.4.5 Antifungal effect 9
2.4.6 Antibacteria
activity 9
2.4.7Antimalaria activity 9
2.4.8 Fertilizer usage 10
2.4.9 Poultry uses 10
2.5 Test organism 10
2.5.1 Staphyloccocus aureus 10
2.5.2 Escherichia coli 11
2.5.3 Salmonella typhi 11
2.5.4 Pseudomonas aeruginosa 12
CHAPTER
THREE
3.0
Materials and methods 13
3.1
Collections and identification of research plant 13
3.1.1 Plant Leaves Preparation 13
3.1.2
Extraction procedure of plant materials 13
3.2 Media 14
3.2.1 Preparation of Media 14
3.3 Preparation Stock Solution of Extract 14
3.4 Test Organism 14
3.4.1
Reactivation of Test Organism 15
3.5 Antibacterial bioassay of crude
extracts 15
3.6 Determination of Minimum Inhibitory
Concentration (MIC) 16
3.7
Determination of Minimum Bactericidal Concentration (MBC) 16
3.8 Phytochemical Screening 17
3.8.1 Alkaloids 17
3.8.2 Flavonoids 17
3.8.3 Tannins 17
3.8.4 Phenol 17
3.8.5
Saponin 17
CHAPTER FOUR
4.1 Results
19
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0
DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 23
5.1
Discussion 23
5.2
Conclusion 25
5.3
Recommendation 25
REFERENCES 26
LIST OF TABLES
Table
1 Diameter zone of inhibition (mm) produced
by Methanol extracts of
C. Odorata and A. Indica against the test organisms. 20
2 MIC
and MBC values (mg/ml) of the extracts against susceptible
organisms 21
3 Qualitative
Phytochemical constituents of the plants 22
4 Quantitative
phytochemical constituents of plants 22
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The interest in plant remedies has been
spurred by several factors including their effectiveness, the high cost and side
effects of orthodox medicines, improvements in the quality, safety, and
efficacy of herbal medicines with the development of science and technology,
self medication, and the belief that herbal medicines might be effective in the
treatment of any disease where conventional therapies have failed (Dias et al., 2012).The increasing numbers of
internet websites that sell and promote herbal supplements have exposed
unsuspecting consumers to inaccurate claims regarding these products. In
Nigeria, the use of vehicles with loudspeakers for advertising herbal products
in villages, towns and cities is common. Many patients in Nigeria use a wide
range of herbal medicines in addition to their conventional medicines without
informing their healthcare providers about the concomitant use of the herbs
with orthodox medicines. Some healthcare professionals also do not ask
questions about their use of herbal medicines due to inadequate knowledge about
their use (Oshikoya, 2018).
Human beings have depended on nature for
their simple requirements as being the sources for medicines, shelters, food
stuffs, fragrances, clothing, flavours, fertilizers and means of transportation
throughout the ages. For the large proportions of world’s population medicinal
plants continue to show a dominant role in the healthcare system and this is
mainly true in developing countries, where herbal medicine has continuous
history of long use. The development and recognition of medicinal and financial
aids of these plants are on rise in both industrialized and developing nations.
In spite of the fact that now we have at our command a number of modern drugs,
it is still genuinely urgent to discover and develop new therapeutic agents. It
has been estimated that the acceptable therapy is available only for one third
of the known human ailments. Therefore, the fight against diseases must be
carried on relentlessly. Traditional plant medicines still enjoy significant
position in the modern-day drug industries due to the minor side effects as
well as the synergistic action of the combination of compounds (Singh, 2015).
Different types of traditional drugs are
widely used in Asia, Africa and Latin America to meet basic health needs. This
use is growing rapidly in industrialized countries, which are often referred to
as complementary or alternative medicine. In the United States, the National
Institutes of Health (NIH) uses the complementary and alternative medicine
(CAM) to cover health systems, practices, and products are not presently
considered to be part of conventional medicine. Across the world, among all the
various traditional medical systems, traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) is
currently the most popular, followed by Indian medicine (Liu, 2011).
Medicinal herbs have a hopeful future
since there are about half a million plants around the world, most of them have
not yet been studied in medical practice, and current and future studies on
medical activities can be effective in treating diseases (Singh, 2015). The use
of medicinal plants has a long history; however, the use of the whole plant or
raw materials for treatment or experimentation has many drawbacks, including
changes in the plant’s compounds in different climates, simultaneous
development of synergistic compounds that lead to adverse effects of
antagonists, or other unexpected changes in bioactivity, and changes or loss of
bioactivity due to the variability and accumulation, storage and preparation of
raw materials; therefore, advancing towards the isolation of compounds and the
use of pure substances with bioactivity, instead of the plant benefits, has
certain benefits including convenient examination of therapeutic effects and
determination of toxic doses to control the quality of the therapeutic
formulation (Zhang, 2011).
Undoubtedly, the demand for plant-derived
products has increased across the world. In the Middle East, Latin America,
Africa and Asia more than 85 percent of the populations predominantly rely on
traditional medicine, especially on herbal medicines, for their health care needs.
About 100 million people in the European Union and in some countries as high as
90% of the population, still use traditional, complementary or herbal
medicines. The herbal medicine has an increasing big market. In 2012, the whole
sales of Chinese herbal medicines reached more than US$83 billion which was 20%
more than the market in 2011. It has been suggested that the whole market for
all herbal supplements will reach more than US$115 billion by 2020 (Fatemeh et
al., 2018).
Research interest on medicinal plants is
being amplified in recent years, which is seen by the increase in the number of
publications on plant-based pharmacological interactions and synergistic
principles (van Vuuren and Viljoen, 2011). This interest has led to the
discovery of new/novel biologically active molecules by the researchers and
pharmaceutical industries and the adoption of crude extracts of plants for
self-medication by the general public.
1.2 AIM
AND OBJECTIVE
1. To screen two medicinal plants (Chromolaena
odorata and Azadirachta indica) for antimicrobial activity against some
bacterial pathogens.
2. To carry out phytochemical screening of
the ethanolic extracts of the medicinal plants.
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