ABSTRACT
The development and evaluation of breakfast cereals from blends of African yam bean, maize and date pulp flours were studied. African yam bean and date pulp flours were used to fortify maize flour in order to increase the nutritional value of the maize based cereal blends. The food materials were purchased from Ndioru market, Ikwuano, Abia State. The foods were sorted, washed, soaked, dried and milled. Proximate, minerals, vitamins, anti-nutritional and sensory properties were determined on the six different blends (MAD1- Maize Flour 70%, African Yam Bean Flour 20% Date Pulp Flour 10%; MAD2 - Maize Flour 65%, African Yam Bean Flour 20 %, Date Pulp Flour 15%; MAD3 - Maize Flour 60%, African Yam bean 30%, Date Pulp Flour 10%; MAD4 - Maize Flour 55%, African Yam Bean Flour 30%, Date Pulp Flour 15%; MAD5 - Maize Flour 50%, African Yam bean 40%, Date Pulp Flour 40%; MAD6 = 45:40:15 Maize Flour 45%, African Yam Bean Flour 40%, Date Pulp Flour 15%). The results showed an increase in the protein content of all the blends as compared to the maize. The values ranged from 13.26% for MAD2 to 19.39% for MAD5. The breakfast cereals had higher values of protein content than the control 7.87%. The phosphorus, calcium and iron contents ranged between 453.36 to 455.11 mg, 308.27 to 310.26 mg and 6.67 to 7.26 mg respectively. The vitamin C (45.09 mg) content of the breakfast cereals was significantly higher than all the vitamins analysed, including the vitamin content of the control. Inherent anti-nutrients: phytate 0.43 – 0.48 mg, oxalate 0.12 – 0.17 mg, tannin 0.02 – 0.03 mg and heamagglutinin 0.02 – 0.03 mg associated with leguminous food sources were reduced. The breakfast cereal products were rated above the average score on the hedonic test by panel of judges, and showed some similarities with Golden morn (control) (p>0.05), implying its potential acceptability when commercialized. It was therefore concluded that flour from African yam bean and date palm pulp can be blended with cereal flours to produce breakfast cereal products.
TABLE
OF CONTENTS
Title
page i
Declaration ii
Certification iii
Dedication iv
Acknowledgement v
Table
of contents vi
List
of Tables
x
List
of Figures xi
List
of Plates xii
Abstract xiii
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study 1
1.2 Statement of Problem 4
1.3 Objectives of the Study 6
1.3.1 General objective 6
1.3.2 Specific objectives of the study
6
1.4 Significance of the Study 6
CHAPTER
2: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Breakfast 8
2.1.1
Importance of breakfast 8
2.1.2 Constituents of a healthy breakfast 10
2.2 Breakfast Cereals 13
2.2.1 History of breakfast cereals 15
2.2.2 Formulation of local breakfast cereal of high
nutritive value 16
2.3 Legumes and Cereals 17
2.3.1 Legumes 18
2.3.2 World production of legumes 21
2.3.3 Nutritive relevance of legumes 21
2.3.4 Anti-nutritional factors in legumes 22
2.3.5 Underutilized legumes 24
2.4 African Yam Bean 27
2.4.1 Nutrient composition of African yam bean
seeds 27
2.4.2 Processing and utilization of African yam
bean seeds 30
2.4.3 The use of African yam bean in the
management of diet-related non-communicable diseases 30
2.4.4 Constraints to the use of African yam bean
seeds 31
2.5 Cereals 31
2.5.1 Health benefits of cereals 33
2.6 Maize:
Production and Classification 38
2.6.1 Origin of maize 38
2.6.2 Nutrient composition of maize 40
2.6.3 Approaches to improving the nutritive value
of maize 44
2.7 Some Anti-nutrients and Toxicants in
Plant Foods 45
2.8 Effects of Food Processing 46
2.8.1 Benefits of food processing 47
2.8.2 Processing techniques employed in improving
the nutritional value of legumes and cereals 48
2.8.2.1 Soaking 48
2.8.2.2 Dehulling 50
2.8.2.3
Heat treatment (Cooking) 51
2.8.2.4 Germination 52
2.8.2.5 Fermentation 53
2.8.2.6 Drying 57
2.8.2.7 Drying-Milling 57
2.9 Date Palm Fruit 57
2.9.1 History of Date Palm 59
i.
Composition and nutritive
properties of Date 60
2.9.3 Medicinal value of Date fruit 69
i.
Food use of Date fruit 70
2.10 Food Enrichment 72
2.10.1 Guidelines to food enrichment 73
2.11 Malnutrition 74
2.11.1 Causes of malnutrition 75
2.11.2 Forms of malnutrition 75
2.11.3 Some medical causes of malnutrition
77
2.11.4 Individuals at risk of poor nutrient
intake
77
2.11.5 Strategies of eliminating malnutrition 77
2.12 Sensory Evaluation 79
2.12.1 Hedonic test 79
2.12.2 General requirements and conditions for
sensory evaluation
80
CHAPTER
3: MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1 Material Procurement 89
3.1.1. Sample preparation 89
3.1.2 Processing of Maize into flour 89
3.1.3
Production of African yam bean flour 92
3.1.4. Production of Date pulp flour 95
3.2. Product Formulation 97
3.2.1 Formulation of flour blends 97
3.2.2 Recipes for the production of breakfast
Cereals made with Maize, African yam and Date pulp 97
3.3 Chemical Analysis 100
3.3.1 Determination of proximate composition of
blends of Maize, African yam bean and Date palm pulp 100
3.3.1.1 Determination of Moisture content 100
3.3.1.2 Determination of
Ash content 101
3.3.1.3 Determination of
Crude fibre 101
3.3.1.4 Determination of
Protein content 102
3.3.1.5 Determination of
Fat content 103
3.3.1.6 Determination of Carbohydrate content 103
3.3.2 Determination of Minerals 103
3.3.2.1 Determination of
Phosphorus 104
3.3.2.2 Determination of Calcium 104
3.3.2.3 Determination of
Zinc 105
3.3.2.4 Determination of
Iron 107
3.3.3 Determination of Vitamins 107
3.3.3.1 Determination of Vitamin A 107
3.3.3.2 Determination of Thiamine 108
3.3.3.3 Determination of
Riboflavin 109
3.3.3.4 Determination of
Niacin 110
3.3.3.5 Determination of
Vitamin C 111
3.4 Determination
of Antinutritional Factors 111
3.4.1 Determination of Phytate 111
3.4.2 Determination of Tannin 112
3.4.3 Determination of Oxalate 113
3.4.4 Determination of hemagglutinin activity 113
3.5 Calculation of Total Energy 114
3.6 Contributions of Formulated Breakfast
Cereal to Reference Nutrient Intake (RNI) 114
3.7 Sensory Evaluation 115
3.8 Data Analysis 115
CHAPTER 4:
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Proximate composition 116
4.1.1 Moisture
content of the formulated breakfast cereal blends 116
4.1.2 Crude Protein content of the formulated
breakfast cereal blends 117
4.1.3 Fat content of the formulated breakfast
cereal blends 119
4.1.4 Crude Fibre content of the formulated
breakfast cereal blends 119
4.1.5 Ash content of the formulated breakfast
cereal blends 120
4.1.6 Carbohydrate content of the formulated
breakfast cereal blends 121
4.1.7 Energy content of the formulated breakfast cereal blends 122
4.1.8 Percentage contributions of energy, protein and fat content
of breakfast cereal blends made from 100g Maize-AYB-date pulp composite flour
toward RNI for children and adults 123
4.2 Mineral Composition of the Breakfast
Cereals 126
4.2.1 Phosphorus content of the formulated
breakfast cereal blends 126
4.2.2 Calcium content of the formulated breakfast
cereal blends 127
4.2.3 Magnesium content of the formulated
breakfast cereal blends 130
4.2.4 Zinc content of the formulated breakfast
cereal blends 130
4.2.5 Iron content of the formulated breakfast
cereal blends 131
4.2.6 Percentage contributions of vitamin contents
of breakfast cereal blends made from 100g Maize-AYB-date pulp composite flour
toward RNI for children and adults 132
4.3 Vitamin Composition of the Breakfast
Cereals 135
4.3.1 Vitamin A content of the formulated
breakfast cereal blends 135
4.3.2 Vitamin B1 (Thiamine) content of the formulated breakfast
cereal blends 135
4.3.3 Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin) content of the formulated breakfast
cereal blends 136
4.3.4 Niacin (Vitamin B3) content of
the formulated breakfast cereal blends 137
4.3.5 Vitamin C content of the formulated breakfast
cereal blends 138
4.3.6 Percentage contributions of vitamin contents
of breakfast cereal blends made from 100g Maize-AYB-date pulp composite flour
toward RNI for children and adults 140
4.4 Anti-Nutrient Composition of the
Breakfast Cereals 142
4.4.1 Phytate/Phytic Acid content of the
formulated breakfast cereal blends 142
4.4.2 Tannin content of the formulated breakfast
cereal blends 143
4.4.3 Oxalate content of the formulated breakfast
cereal blends 143
4.4.4 Hemagglutinin content of the formulated
breakfast cereal blends 144
4.5 Sensory Evaluation 146
4.5.1 Attribute perception of the samples served
dry 146
4.5.2 Attribute perceptions of the samples served
with cold water 151
4.5.3. Attribute
perception of the samples served with hot milk 156
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1 Conclusion 161
5.2 Recommendation 162
References 163
Appendices 186
LIST
OF TABLES
2.1 Proximate composition of some lesser known
legumes 26
2.2 Proximate composition of the African yam
bean seeds compared to some tropical legumes 29
2.3 Proximate composition of the main cereals
grown in Nigeria (% dry matter basis)
32
2.4 Composition and nutritive properties of
date palm (Phoenix dactylifera L)
Flesh
65
2.5 Vitamin content of the date palm (Phoenix dactilifera L) fruit flour. 68
2.6 Mineral content of date palm (Phoenix dactilifera L) fruit flour 68
3.1 Formulation of flour blend 97
3.2 Recipe for the production of breakfast
cereals made from blends of maize + AYB + DP Flour per 100g 98
4.1 Proximate
composition of breakfast diet made from blends of Maize, African yam bean and
Date pulp flours (mg/100g) on dry weight bases 118
4.2 Percentage contribution of energy, protein
and fat content of breakfast cereals blends made from 100g of maize-AYB-date
pulp flours toward RNI for children and adults 125
4.3 The
mineral content of breakfast diet made from blends of maize, African yam bean
and date palm flours (mg/100g) on dry weight bases 129
4.4 Percentage contribution of minerals
content of breakfast cereals blends made from 100g of maize-AYB-date pulp
flours toward RNI for children and adults 134
4.5 The vitamin content of breakfast diet made
from blends of Maize, African yam bean and Date palm flours (mg/100g) on dry
weight bases 139
4.6 Percentage
contribution of vitamin content of breakfast cereals blends made from 100g of
maize-AYB-date pulp flours toward RNI for children and adults 141
4.7 The
Anti-nutrient content of breakfast diet made from blends of maize, African yam
bean and Date palm flours (mg/100g) on dry weight bases 145
4.8 The
sensory scores of breakfast diet made from blends of Maize, African yam bean
and Date palm flours served raw/dry 150
4.9 The
sensory scores of breakfast diet made from blends of Maize, African yam bean
and Date palm flours served with cold water
155
4.10
The sensory scores of breakfast diets
made from blends of Maize, African yam bean and Date palm flours served hot
water 160
LIST OF FIGURES
3.1 Flow diagram for the production of maize
flour 90
3.2 Flow diagram for the production of African
yam bean flour 93
3.3 Flow diagram
for the production of Date pulp flour 95
3.4
Flow chat for the Production of breakfast cereal from blends of African yam bean, Maize and Date palm pulp fours 99
4.1 Energy value of breakfast
cereals made from blends of AYB + Maize + Date pulp flours 123
LIST OF PLATES
Plate
1 Wet-milled Maize flour 91
Plate
2 Maize flour 91
Plate 3 Dehulled
African yam bean seeds 94
Plate 4 Oven-dried
African yam bean seeds 94
Plate 5 African yam
bean flour 94
Plate
6 Date fruit 96
Plate
7 Date pulp flour 96
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND OF STUDY
The
word “breakfast” came into use in written English in 15th century.
It is the first meal of the day, which literally means to break the fasting
period of the prior night (Anderson, 2013). Breakfast is the most important
meal of the day, contributing substantially to daily nutrient intake and energy
need. Researchers have indicated that there is significant cognitive function
in people who eat breakfast (Dye et al.,
2000; Cooper et al., 2011). Contrary,
skipping breakfast adversely affects problem solving, short-term memory and
attention, metabolism and weight (Giovannini et al., 2010; Horikawa et
al., 2011; Hasz and Lamport, 2012). Breakfast meals vary widely with
people, cultures and places around the world (Adelekan et al., 2012).
In
developing countries like Nigeria, breakfast meals for infants and adults are
based on local staple diets made from cereals, legumes, and tubers such as
cassava and potatoes. However, the most frequently consumed breakfast foods are
made from cereals (Carlson et al., 2018).
Breakfast cereal is a grain based food product prepared from wheat, oats, corn
or rice, and may undertake minimal processing, such as by drying and rolling
the grain, or more substantial processing such as cooked, and then flaked or
puffed (Quatela et al., 2017).
Several grains may be mixed, and nuts and/or fruits added. They can be consumed
with hot or cold milk, or in a dry state, based on the location, habits, and
availability of resources (Anderson, 2013). Their characteristic high fiber and
protein content promotes slower gastric emptying and more sustained blood
glucose levels (Mahoney et al.,
2005).
Due
to their roles in building healthful habits such as eating breakfast,
nutritional values and convenience, ready-to-eat breakfast cereals are
increasingly gaining acceptance as an alternate breakfast option to traditional
foods, especially among urban dwellers. Jones (2003), stated that instant and
ready-to-eat (RTE) cereals encourages autonomy during meal because they can be
quickly and easily prepared. As such children and adolescents can be
responsible for their own breakfast or snacks. Such foods may need to be
reconstituted, pre-heated in a vessel or allowed to thaw if frozen before
constitution, or they may be eaten directly without further treatment. The
following appear to be the most commonly and locally eaten cereal products in
Nigeria by children and adults regardless of age: Good morning corn flakes,
NASCO cornflakes, NABISCO flakes, Kellogg’s cornflakes, Quaker Oats, Weetabix,
Rice crisps, Golden morn among others (Usman, 2012) .
In
Nigeria, cereals are consumed with little or no protein (Adelekan et al., 2012). This leads to
protein-calorie malnutrition and pellagra (Adelekan et al., 2012). Consequently, the Federal Ministry of Health (FMOH)
in Nigeria published the Food-Based Dietary Guidelines (FBDG) (FMOH, 1999). The
guidelines recommended some sustainable food based approaches that encourage
dietary diversification through the production and consumption by all
population groups, of both macro- and -micro-nutrient rich foods, including
traditional foods found in different parts of the country (FMOH, 1999). The
report recommended the use of staple starchy roots, tubers and cereals in
combination with legumes, vegetables and fruits in preparing instant foods for
all population groups. Therefore, a
combination of such food stuffs will improve the nutritional value of the
resulting blend above and beyond the individual components alone. Based on
these recommendations, food products developers have made huge progress in
biofortification to incorporate legumes, fruits/nuts into traditional cereals
formulations as nutrient diversification strategy as well as efforts to reduce
the incidence of protein-energy malnutrition (PEM) among vulnerable groups
(NACMD, 2003).
The
suitability of combining cereals with oil seeds and legumes have been more
succinctly documented by previous researchers. Such food blends are of
biologically high quality and cheap protein that contains all essential amino
acids in proper proportion and their amino acids complement each other
(Mbaeyi-Nwaoha and Uchendu, 2016). Thus, legume seeds which are good, and major
sources of cheap and widely available protein for most humans in some areas are
put to countless uses in this effect, both nutritional and industrial
(Mbaeyi-Nwaoha and Uchendu, 2016). They range between the extremely utilized
legumes such as soybeans (Glycine max),
cowpea (Vigna unguiculata), and
groundnut (Arachis hypogea). However,
there are less exploited ones such as the African yam bean (Sphenostylis stenocarpa), a tropical
legume which has attracted research attention in recent times (Azeke et al., 2005). The seed is high in crude
protein content, ranging between 21-29 %; and is about twice to three times
that of cereals and several times that in root and tubers. The seeds have good
nutritional profile with high level of carbohydrate, protein, lipid, minerals,
and other nutrients comparable with that of other common legume grains (Uguru
and Madukaife, 2001; Emiola, 2011; Onuoha et
al., 2017).
African
yam bean (Sphenostylis stenocarpa)
(locally known as “Okpodudu, Ijiriji or
Azama”), ranks well among neglected crops. The seeds are highly priced food
legume in the South East of Nigeria. It can efficiently be used to combat food
insecurity if its vast genetic, economic and nutritional potentials are
utilized especially in reducing malnutrition (Adewale et al., 2012). This can be achieved by the consumption of the
legume whole and in various processed forms (the seed can be cooked and eaten
with local seasonings or roasted and eaten with palm kernels). When made into
flour or paste, it can also be used to produce a type of “moin-moin” with a
cereal base (Uche et al., 2014).
Today’s
(modern) lifestyle has influenced food consumption habits all over the world,
where foods such as instant breakfast cereals used at home, hospitals, offices
and so on contain very limited amount of therapeutic and digestion facilitating
substances such as dietary fibres. While this practice is prevalent in the society, as measures to effectively eradicate all forms of
malnutrition, nutritionists recommend the consumption
of foods that contain all the six classes of food in adequate proportion,
dietary fibre included. Date palm (Phoenix
dactylifera) also known as “tree of life” is an important fruit tree and an
excellent source of dietary fibre, minerals and vitamins. Considering the
nutrient content of date flesh, the Nigerian food industry can be encouraged to
develop new source of supplement from flour prepared from date palm pulp,
combined with grains and legumes (Omowunmi
and Ayoade, 2013; Rwubatse et al.,
2014).
The
utilization of cereals, legumes, vegetables and fruits in breakfast cereals
formulation has in the past yielded promising results. It is therefore
imperative that blends of such foodstuffs found in various communities be
formulated and evaluation of its composites be carried out for possible use as
breakfast cereal food. The present study aims to produce and evaluate breakfast
cereals made from blends of African yam bean, maize and date palm pulp.
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
African yam bean has been recognized to have vast genetic
and economic potentials, mostly in the reduction of malnutrition among
Africans; however, the crop has not received full recognition by researchers
and the public in general, thereby limiting its contribution to diet
diversification, food security and sustainability. Increasing the use of
underutilized crops is one of the best approaches to reduce nutritional and
financial vulnerability in times of change (Adewale et al., 2010; Adewale and Odoh, 2013).
Over
time, some conditions have negatively influenced the productivity and
acceptability of African yam bean among cultivators, consumers, and research
scientists. The coditions include, the characteristic hardness of the seed coat
which increases cost and time of
cooking, presence of antinutrients or secondary metabolites (Uche et al., 2014). Thus, it is of interest
to process African yam bean seeds into acceptable, ready-to-eat and safe
products together with other locally available materials including maize and
date palm pulp.
Although
there are many available maize-based products in the market, however, there is
a high record of postharvest losses in maize, along all its production chain.
(Swai et al., 2019; Mbaeyi-Nwaoha and
Uchendu, 2016). Therefore, there is need to find diversified uses of maize in
order to maximize utilization of the food crop and to cater for the fast
changing taste and nutritional needs of the new generation.
Nigeria
spends most of its foreign exchange on importation of sugar. This foreign
currency spent on sugar importation depletes the country’s foreign exchange
reserve. The complete replacement of sucrose with date palm pulp (Nwanekezi et al., 2015) will boost the Nigerian
date palm industry, more so, create more awareness of the nutritional
importance of date (AbdulQadir, 2011; Omowunmi et al., 2013). However, steady and goal-oriented research and
development is required to achieve industrial utilization of date fruit in
Nigerian food industry. This present study aims to develop and evaluate
breakfast cereals made from the blends of African yam bean (AYB), maize and
date pulp (DP).
1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
1.3.1 General objective of the study
The
general objective of this study was to develop and evaluate breakfast cereals
from blends of African yam bean (Sphenostylis
stenocarpa), maize (Zea mays) and
date palm plup (Phoenix dactylifera)
flours.
1.3.2 The specific
objective of the study were to:
1. produce flour from African yam bean, maize and date palm
pulp flours.
2. develop a breakfast meal from blends of African yam bean,
maize and date palm pulp.
3. determine the proximate composition of flour blends
produced from African yam bean, maize and date palm pulp.
4. determine
the vitamin composition of the cereal based formulated breakfast.
5. determie
the mineral composition of the formulated cereal based breakfast.
6. determine
the antinutrient composition of the formulated breakfast product.
7. determine the sensory properties of the
formulated breakfast products.
1.4 SIGNIFICANCE
OF THE STUDY
Findings
from this study will provide necessary information to stakeholders on policies
that would promote the exploitation of these underutilized crops. This will
promote diversififcation and consequently, positively affect food security. It
will also provide scientific guide to nutritonists/dieticians on the use of
local, cheap and readily but rich food crops in diet formulations. These
formulations can be used by nutritonists/dieticians in the prevention and
management of diet related diseases. The success of this study will be
benefical to companies in the primary sector, involved in the production and
supply chain of these food stuffs. The findings from this study will provide
information to the farmers on the utilization methods of these food crops,
consequently, farmers will be encouraged to grow them.
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