COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE MICROBIAL QUALITY OF A SELECTED BRAND OF SACHET AND BOTTLE WATER

ABSTRACT

Safe and potable water supplies in urban centres in Nigeria are still inadequate in spite of over five decades of independence and several efforts from various governments. This study was aimed to assess and compare the microbiological qualities of bottle and sachet packaged water sold in Umuahia Metropolis. A total of five (5) known sachets water and five known bottle water samples were purchased from different location in Umuahia Metropolis and analyzed using microbiological standard method. The bacteria isolate were Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumonia, Staphylococcus aureus, Shigella species, Proteus mirabilis and Enterobacter aerogenes while the fungal isolate were Aspergillus Niger, Fusarium oxysporum, and Aspergillus flavus. The mean Microbial load of sachet water sample is higher compare to the bottle water sample. They were slightly high and exceeding the recommended standard limit for water 1.0 x 102 CFU/ml. The result of the presumptive coliform indicates that bottle water has <2 coliform which means there is no coliform contamination found in bottle water compare to sachet water it was observed that the sachet water contain more bacterial isolates than the bottle water sample. The dominant bacterial species was Escherichia coli with percentage of 55.7% while the dominant fungal species was Aspergillus niger having percentage occurrence of 32.5%. The microbial contaminants could be as a result of improper sterilization of the water before packaging or contamination due to poor handling during production, transportation or sales of such products.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title page                                                                                                                                i

Declaration                                                                                                                             ii

Certification                                                                                                                            iii

Dedication                                                                                                                               iv

Acknowledgements                                                                                                                v

Table of Contents                                                                                                                   vi

List of Tables                                                                                                                          viii

Abstract                                                                                                                                   ix

CHAPTER ONE:      INTRODUCTION

1.1        Aims and Objectives                                                                                             4

CHAPTER TWO:    LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1       Main Sources of Domestic Water                                                                              6

2.2       Sources of Water Pollution                                                                                         7

2.3       Water Related Health Risk                                                                                         8

2.4       Water-Washed Diseases                                                                                             8

2.5       Water Borne Diseases                                                                                                 8

2.6       Problems Due to Chemically Contaminated Water                                                   9

2.7       Problems Due to Microbiologically Contaminated Water                                         9

2.8       Assessment of Water Quality                                                                                                 10

2.9       Biological Analysis                                                                                                    11

2.10     Nigerian Standard for Drinking Water                                                                       11

2.10.1  Drinking Water Quality Standard Used in Nigeria                                                    11

2.10.2  Packaged Waters in the Market                                                                                  12

2.10.3  The Role of Packaged / “Pure Water” Producers towards National Development   14

CHAPTER THREE:            MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1       Study Area                                                                                                                  16

3.2       Sampling of Water                                                                                                      16

3.3       Media Preparation                                                                                                      16

3.4       Bacteriological Analysis                                                                                             16

3.5      Identification and Characterization of Isolates                                                            17

3.6       Gram Staining                                                                                                             17

3.7       Motility Test by Hanging Dropmethod                                                                      17

3.8       Biochemical Tests                                                                                                      18

3.8.1    Catalase Test                                                                                                               18

3.8.2    Coagulase Test (Slide test)                                                                                         18

3.8.3    Oxidase Test                                                                                                               18

3.8.4    Citrate Utilization Test                                                                                               19

3.8.5    Indole Test                                                                                                                  19

3.8.6    Urease Test                                                                                                                 19

3.8.7    Voges-Proskauer Test                                                                                                 20

3.8.8    Methyl Red Test                                                                                                         20

3.9        Lactophenol Cotton Blue Staining                                                                            21

3.9.1    Sugar utilization test                                                                                                   21

3.9.2     Coliform Count                                                                                                          21

3.9.3     Presumptive test                                                                                                        22

3.9.4   Confirmed test                                                                                                             22

3.9.5    Complete test                                                                                                              22

CHAPTER FOUR:   RESULT                                                                                            23

CHAPTER FIVE

DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1       Discussion                                                                                                                   31

5.2       Conclusion                                                                                                  33

5.3       Recommendation                                                                                                        33

References                                                                                                                  35

LIST OF TABLES

Table                  Title                                                                  Page

CHAPTER ONE

1.0         INTRODUCTION

 Safe and potable water supplies in urban centres in Nigeria are still inadequate in spite of over five decades of independence and several efforts from various governments. In many developing countries, availability of water has become a critical and urgent problem and it is a matter of great concern to families and communities depending on Non-public water supply system (Okonko et al., 2008). Increase in human population has exerted an enormous pressure on the provision of safe drinking water in developing countries (Umeh et al., 2005). Towards the Millennium Development Goals–Action for Water and Environmental Sanitation is timely in the light of the problem of poor availability and access to good drinking water in many countries of the world including Nigeria. “About one – fifth of the world’s population lack access to safe drinking water, and about half lack adequate sanitation. About 40 percent of the world’s population lives in countries with moderate to high water stress.  By 2025, this figure could rise to 50 percent. Yet, with the help of policy and legal reform, international cooperation, community and private sector participation, technical innovation – there are encouraging signs that the crisis could be averted.

The connectivity between poverty, hunger, availability, affordability and access to drinking water to sustainable development is succinctly described by the goals of the millennium declaration. “The links between water, health and poverty are numerous and complex. Access to safe water affects adequate sanitation which in turn drives the risk of water borne diseases especially in poor urban communities. The urban poor often spend up to 10 - 20 times more on water from vendors than piped water. The inability of Government to consistently provide adequate water contributed to the proliferation of the so-called ‘pure water’ manufacture in Nigeria. The provision of drinking water that is not only safe, but tasteless, odourless and clean in appearance is top priority in any country that cares for good health, and poverty alleviation towards sustainable development. Consumers cannot by themselves ascertain the quality of drinking water. Naturally, water that appears dirty, discolored, smelly or with unpleasant taste will be treated with grave suspicion by consumers, thus causing them to find an alternative. However, appearance and other organoleptic properties are not there to make Water Quality Assurance (Akunyili, 2003).Unsafe water is a global public health threat, placing persons at risk for a host of diarrheal and other diseases as well as chemical intoxication(Hughes and Koplan, 2005). Unsanitary water has particularly devastating effects on young children in the developing world.  Each year, more than 2 million persons, mostly children less than 5 years of age, die of diarrhea disease (Kosek et al., 2003; Parashar et al., 2003). For children in this age group, diarrheal disease accounted for 17% of all death from 2000 to 2003(WHO, 2005), ranking third among causes of death, after neonatal causes and acute respiratory infections. Nearly 90% of diarrheal-related deaths have been attributed to unsafe or inadequate water supplies and sanitation (WHO, 2004) conditions affecting a large part of the world’s   population (Hughes and Koplan, 2005).

 An estimated 1.1 billion persons (one sixth of the world’s population) lack access to clean water and 2.6 billion to adequate sanitation (WHO, 2005; Hughes and Koplan, 2005). The principal objectives of municipal water are the production and the distribution of safe water that is fit for human consumption (Lamikanra, 1999; Okonko et al., 2008). Recently in Nigeria, drinking water is commercially available in easy-to-open 50-60ml polyethylene sacks known as sachet/pure water (Umeh et al., 2005).The water vending is a flourishing business in Umuahia Nigeria and many people are lured into this business for getting easy returns. The major supply which has become popular among the medium and low income groups are the cheap nylon sachets either registered with the regulatory body (National Agency for Food and Drug Administration and Control NAFDAC) or without registration. Conformation with microbiological standard is of special interest because of the capacity of water to spread diseases within a large population.

 Although the standards vary from place to place, the objective anywhere is to reduce the possibility of spreading waterborne diseases in addition to being pleasant to drink, which implies that it must be wholesome and palatable in all respects (Edema et al., 2001; Okonko et al., 2008). A collaborative, interdisciplinary effort to ensure global access to safe water, basic sanitation, and improved hygiene is the foundation for ending cycle of poverty and diseases (Hughes and Koplan, 2005). At the end of 2000 United Nations (UN) Millennium Summit, member states adopted a set of 8 goals and related targets and indicators aimed at helping to end human. Poverty and its ramifications (Sachs and McArthur, 2005). According to Hughes and Koplan, (2005), among these millennium.

Development Goals is a call to halve by the year 2015 the proportion of persons without sustainable access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation. Towards the end of March 2005, the UN launched the “International Decade for Action: Water for Life 2005-2015” (UN, 2005; Bartram et al., 2005). Success in reaching these targets will help achieve the other goals, increase work force productivity, and substantially reduce the amount of time that women and children spend collecting and storing water, which will free them to pursue other productive and educational activities (Hughes and Koplan, 2005).

According to Bartram et al., (2005), the WHO-sponsored International Network for the Promotion of Safe Household Water Treatment and Storage, a global collaboration of UN and bilateral agencies, non-governmental organizations, research institutions, and the private sector, could serve as a model for improving coordination of international efforts in this area of global safe water, sanitation, and hygiene. Innovative approaches towards improving water, sanitation, and hygiene must be implemented and evaluated.  A number of studies conducted in a variety of geographic settings have shown that interventions such as point-of-use disinfection of water and educational efforts to improve personal hygiene help reduce disease prevalence (Clasen and Cairncross, 2004). These studies also highlighted the importance of tailoring such interventions to local situations (Hughes and Koplan, 2005).A recent study in an area in rural western Kenya that had turbid source of water found that household use of flocculants disinfectant Preparation helped to reduce the prevalence of diarrhea in children less than 2 years of age (Crump et al., 2005). Studies in refugee camps in Africa (Peterson et al., 1998) and urban slums in Asia (Luby et al., 2005) have reported that hand-washing with soap reduced the prevalence of diarrhea in all age groups and lowered the incidence of diarrhea and pneumonia in children less than 5 years of age.

1.1       AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

1.  To assess and compare the microbiological qualities of bottle and sachet packaged water sold in Umuahia Metropolis.

2.  To find out if the packaged water sold, is in conformity or otherwise with the standards set by the regulatory body.

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