ABSTRACT
Chemical and sensory attributes of pap produced from two varieties of sorghum was evaluated. Pap samples were processed from 100% white sorghum, 100% red sorghum and 70% red sorghum and 30% soybean blends; raw pap samples were also processed from 100% red sorghum and 100% white sorghum to have a total of five pap samples. The proximate composition, mineral content, vitamin content, phytochemical content sensory properties of the pap samples were evaluated using standard laboratory procedures. The data generated were statistically analysed by One Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) using Statistical Product of Service Solution (Version 22.0). The results of proximate composition showed that SSP (Pap processed from 70% red sorghum and 30% soybean) had the highest moisture content (79.92%), crude protein (9.47%), fat (0.97%), crude fibre (0.97%) and ash (1.15%) whereas RRSP (Raw pap processed from 100% red sorghum) had the highest carbohydrate (44.82%) and energy value (216.54 Kcal/100g). The mineral content of the pap samples showed that SSP had the highest calcium (4.52 mg/100g), magnesium (5.32 mg/100g), phosphorus (79.11 mg/100g), potassium (85.14 mg/100g), sodium (11.29 mg/100g), selenium (0.09 mg/100g) and zinc content (0.43 mg/100g) while the highest iron (0.82 mg/100g) and manganese content (0.12 mg/100g) was obtained in RRSP. More so, the result of vitamin content revealed that SSP had the highest value of vitamin B1 (0.65 mg/100g), B2 (0.41 mg/100g) and B3 (1.43 mg/100g) while the highest vitamin C content (4.18 mg/100g) was obtained in RRSP. In terms of phytochemicals, SSP had the highest tannin (2.18 mg/100g), saponin (1.12 mg/100g) and flavonoid content (1.28 mg/100g) while RWSP and RRSP had the highest alkaloid content (0.24 mg/100g) with RWSP having the highest phenol content (0.83 mg/100g). The results of sensory evaluation showed that WSP (Pap processed from 100% white sorghum), RSP (Pap processed from 100% red sorghum) and SSP were all liked by the panelists with SSP being more preferred in terms of general acceptability.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE
PAGE I
CERTIFICATION II
DEDICATION
III
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
IV
TABLE
OF CONTENTS V
LIST
OF TABLES VIII
LIST
OF FIGURES IX
ABSTRACT
X
CHAPTER 1:
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Statement
of the problem 3
1.2 Objectives
of the study 4
1.2.1 General
objective of the study 4
1.2.2 Specific
objectives of the study 4
1.3 Significance
of the study 4
CHAPTER 2:
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Cereals 6
2.2 Sorghum 7
2.2.1
Nutritional value and health benefits
of sorghum 8
2.2.2 Antinutrient
components of sorghum 10
2.2.3 Processing
and food uses of sorghum 11
2.3 Relevance
of indigenous foods 15
2.4 Overview
of pap 16
2.4.1 Nutritional
composition of various forms of pap 17
2.5 Chemical
properties of food 18
2.6 Consumer
acceptability of food 20
2.6.1 Impact of
sensory attributes on food product's acceptability 21
2.6.1.1 Aroma of food
22
2.6.1.2 Taste of
food 23
2.6.1.3 Texture of food 25
2.6.1.4 Appearance of food 26
CHAPTER 3: MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1 Study design 28
3.2 Sources of raw materials 28
3.3 Sample
preparation 28
3.3.1 Cleaning 28
3.3.2 Preparation
of the sorghum grains for the production of pap 28
3.4 Methods
of analyses 31
3.5 Proximate
analyses 31
3.5.1 Determination
of fat content 31
3.5.2 Determination
of moisture content 31
3.5.3 Determination
of crude protein 32
3.5.4 Determination
of ash content 33
3.5.5 Determination
of crude fibre 33
3.5.6 Determination
of carbohydrate content 34
3.5.7 Determination
of energy value 34
3.6 Mineral analysis 34
3.6.1 Determination of calcium and magnesium 34
3.6.2 Determination of phosphorus 35
3.6.3 Determination of potassium 36
3.6.4 Determination of zinc 36
3.6.5 Determination of iron 37
3.6.6 Determination of sodium 37
3.6.7 Determination of selenium 38
3.6.8 Determination of manganese 38
3.7 Vitamin analysis 38
3.7.1 Determination of vitamin B1 (thiamin) 38
3.7.2 Determination of vitamin B2
(Riboflavin) 39
3.7.3 Determination of vitamin B3
(Niacin) 40
3.7.4 Determination of vitamin C (Ascorbic
acid) 40
3.8 Antinutrient
analysis 41
3.8.1 Determination
of phenol 41
3.8.2 Determination
of flavonoid 41
3.8.3 Determination
of phytate 41
3.8.4 Determination
of tannin 42
3.8.5 Determination
of saponin 43
3.8.6 Determination
of alkaloids 43
3.9 Sensory
evaluation 44
3.10 Statistical
analysis 44
CHPATER 4:
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Proximate
composition of pap produced with white and red sorghum 46
4.2 Vitamin
content of pap produced with white and red sorghum 52
4.3 Mineral
content of pap produced with white and red sorghum 56
4.4 Phytochemical
content of pap produced with white and red sorghum 63
4.5 Sensory
properties of pap produced with white and red sorghum 67
CHAPTER 5:
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Conclusion 71
5.2 Recommendations 71
REFERENCES 73
APPENDIX 84
LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1 Formulation for pap production 29
Table 4.1 Proximate composition of pap produced with
white and red sorghum 47
Table 4.2 Vitamin content of pap produced with white and
red sorghum 54
Table 4.3 Mineral content of pap produced with white and
red sorghum 58
Table 4.4 Phytochemical content of pap produced with
white and red sorghum 64
Table 4.5 Sensory properties of pap produced with white
and red sorghum 68
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 3.1 Flow chart for production of pap
using white and red
sorghum varieties 30
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Traditional
foods are
basically perceived as foods that have been consumed locally or regionally for
a long time and the methods of preparation of such foods have been passed from
generation to generation (Costa et al.,
2010). Traditional foods are affordable and easy
to prepare (Bristone et al., 2018).
Commonly known traditional foods
in Nigeria includes but not limited masa, pito, burukutu, gari,
lafun, fufu, iru, dawadawa, ogiri, nono,
ugba, kunu zaki, palm wine and pap (Adesulu and Awojobi,
2014).
Pap,
a fermented starchy traditional food is a major staple food widely consumed
in West Africa. It is a sour fine paste which when cooked produces a thin
semi-solid porridge (Okara and Lokoyi, 2012). Pap has a smooth texture and a sour taste resembling that of
yoghurt (Okara and Lokoyi, 2012). The colour of pap depends
on the colour of the cereal used such as cream or milk white colour for
maize-pap and
the
reddish-brown colour for sorghum-pap
(Adelekan and Oyewole, 2010).
According to Ajala and Taiwo (2018), pap can be
consumed with sugar, honey, and groundnut and bean cake; when cooled, it
becomes solid called ‘eko agidi’. This can then be consumed with soup or bean
cake (‘moin-moin’ or ‘akara’). In Nigeria, the first weaning food
introduced to children of low-income group is pap (Ajanaku et al., 2017). More so, pap
serves as common breakfast food for adults when taken hot with bean balls (Akara)
(Ajanaku et al., 2017).
Sorghum is one of
the leading cereal crops worldwide. It ranked the fifth highest production of
the cereal crops, following maize, wheat, rice, and barley, with 57.6 million
tons of annual production globally (FAO, 2017). Sorghum play an indispensable
role in household food security (Bolade et
al., 2018). Nutritional composition of sorghum varies among varieties. Sorghum
has proven to be a nutritious cereal. It is richer in copper and pantothenate
than other grains such as wheat, thus it plays an important role in human
nutrition (Nyamwaro et al., 2018). On
average, 100 g of sorghum grain has about 72.1 g carbohydrates, 10.6 g
proteins, 6.7 g fibers, and 3.5 g lipids, and provides about 1,377 kJ energy
(USDA, 2019). Starch is the dominant carbohydrate in sorghum and is stored as
granules in the endosperm. The starch content varies significantly among
varieties from 32.1 to 72.5 g per 100 g grain (Udachan et al., 2012). Besides providing calories, sorghum has actual
nutritional value in principle, because of its content of protein, vitamins,
both fat-soluble (D, E and K) and of B group (except for B12), as
well as minerals, such as iron, phosphorus and zinc (Proietti et al., 2015). The bioactive compounds in
sorghum are primarily the phenolic compounds. The main phenolic compounds
include phenolic acids, flavonoids, condensed tannins, stilbenes, and lignins,
which are produced by the phenylpropanoid pathway (Yun et al., 2019). Sorghum whole grain is an excellent food for people
with obesity and diabetes. Sorghum has a relatively low starch digestibility
(Barros et al., 2012). A wide
variety of traditional food products and recipes are based on sorghum. The
cereal can be boiled like rice, brewed for beer production, baked into
flatbreads or cracked for porridge preparation (Proietti et al., 2015) and so on.
Evaluation
of quality properties of food is crucial as it provides the public with knowledge
of the food constituents. Chemical constituents of food includes but not
limited to its proximate, mineral and vitamin content. The proximate framework
comprise of the analytical determination of moisture, ash, fat, crude protein,
crude fiber and carbohydrate (Onwuka, 2018). Minerals and vitamins are the
constituents which have a significant impact, especially in dietary benefit of
foods. They are normally present in limited quantities yet their significance
is all around perceived (Belitz et al.,
2009). The sensory characteristics; taste, mouthfeel, consistency, aroma,
texture, and appearance of food specifically influence the decision that a
consumer makes regarding the preference of food substance (Kostyra et al.,
2016). This work is designed to evaluate the chemical composition and sensory
attributes of traditional pap produced from two varieties of sorghum.
1.1 STATEMENT OF
THE PROBLEM
Despite the nutritional advantages of
sorghum grains, its potential for economic enhancement and food applications,
relatively little research attention has been devoted to it (Adegbola et al., 2013; Dahir et al., 2015).
Challenges of anti-nutritional factors has not been
properly addressed in most developing nations like Nigeria. Major drawback to
consumption of plants crops such as sorghum is the presence of antinutrients,
particularly, tannin and phytate. Phytate like so many other antinutrient
factors bind calcium, iron, magnesium and zinc, thereby making them unavailable
for absorption. In addition, tannins bind human gut enzymes involved in the
cereal digestion. As a consequence, the antinutrients elicit an unbalanced
intake of essential elements as well as reduce the availability of
metabolizable energy (Abbas and Ahmad, 2018). Possible health problems
associated with antinutrient toxicity includes but not limited to
gastrointestinal and neurological disorders, pancreatic enlargement and growth
dispersion, neuropathy and even death (Soetan et al., 2014). This necessitate processing of food crops.
During processing of sorghum grains into traditional
pap, nutrients are lost by leaching or by other chemical changes like enzymatic
actions, hence the need to evaluate the chemical properties of traditional pap
made from white and red sorghum varieties so as to know the variety that
possess more nutrients. Besides, frequent consumption of traditional pap with
inadequate nutrients has the tendency to result to high rate of malnutrition.
1.2 OBJECTIVES OF
THE STUDY
1.2.1
General objective of the study
The
general objective of this study was to evaluate the chemical composition and
sensory attributes of a pap produced from white and red varieties of sorghum.
1.2.2
Specific objectives of the study
The specific objectives of the study
were to:
i. produce
pap from white and red varieties of sorghum
ii. evaluate
the proximate composition (Moisture, protein, fibre, ash, fat, carbohydrate and energy value) of the pap
iii. determine the mineral content (Magnesium,
calcium, selenium, zinc, potassium, phosphorus, iron and manganese) of the pap
iv. determine the vitamin content (Vitamin
B1, B2, B3 and C) of the pap
v. evaluate the antinutrient content (Tannin, phenol,
flavonoid, alkaloid, saponin and phytate) of the pap
vi. evaluate the sensory attributes (Appearance,
taste, mouthfeel, consistency, flavour and general
acceptability) of the pap.
1.3 SIGNIFICANCE
OF THE STUDY
Processing of pap from two varieties
of sorghum is a cost-effective means of enhancing utilization of sorghum in
food production. This will also contribute in enhancing research on sorghum
grains and as well reduce the immense pressure on maize commonly used in
processing of traditional pap.
This study will provide information on the particular
sorghum variety that possess more nutrients. This will contribute in ensuring
that consumers obtain adequate nutrients in sorghum grains.
This study will also provide information on the
concentration of antinutrients in the traditional pap made from two varieties
of sorghum. Knowledge of this will contribute in ensuring immense consumption
of traditional pap made from sorghum variety with lesser antinutrients.
Findings of this study will be incorporated in
Nigeria’s food composition table so that provision of dietary guidance using
such food composition database as a reference material could be more effective.
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