EFFECT OF INTERCROPPING SORGHUM WITH COWPEA AND NITROGEN APPLICATION ON GROWTH AND YIELD OF SORGHUM (SORGHUM BICOLOR (L.) MOENCH)

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ABSTRACT

Intercropping is an important sustainable cropping system in which two or more crops are grown in the same piece of land. Despite the development of high yield varieties, sorghum yields have remained low due to low soil fertility, inappropriate cropping practices and limited use of fertilizer nitrogen (N). The integration of cowpea into sorghum-based crop systems and N use are likely to increase yield. However, how sorghum-cowpea compatibility, N use and their interactions impact yield of the companion crops is only partially understood. Further, leaf senescence regulates grain yield and quality in sorghum. However, the effect of intercropping sorghum with cowpea on the patterns of leaf senescence of the former is not known. Therefore, an experiment was conducted in 2018/2019 short rain season at Katumani and Igoji KALRO research stations to: (i) determine the effect of intercropping and nitrogen rates on the growth and yield of selected varieties of sorghum and cowpea; (ii) investigate the effect of intercropping sorghum with cowpea on sorghum time-course of leaf senescence and its association with grain yield. Cropping systems (sole crops of two varieties each of sorghum and cowpea, and cereal- legume intercrop combinations of the two varieties of sorghum and cowpea), and three rates of N (0, 40, and 80 kg N ha-1) were laid out in a randomized complete block design with split plot arrangement, replicated three times. Cropping systems formed the main plots while N rate formed the sub-plots. Sorghum and cowpea growth data were collected every 10 days, which started at 4 weeks after planting throughout physiological maturity while grain yield and yield components data were collected at physiological maturity (harvest). Sorghum leaf senescence was assessed from flowering to maturity at both whole-plant level and flag-leaf level. At the whole-plant level, leaf senescence was scored visually by counting the number of leaves that presented more than 50% green leaf area while the greenness of the flag leaf was tracked using SPAD 502 chlorophyll meter. A logistic function in SigmaPlot was fitted to estimate four parameters of senescence in sorghum, including minimum and maximum SPAD units, time to loss of 50% maximum SPAD (EC50) and the rate of senescence (RS). Data were subjected to analysis of variance using Genstat and means were separated using the least significance difference test (p≤0.05). Intercropping significantly reduced leaf area index (LAI) of Gadam by 0.53 units but LAI of Serena was not affected by intercropping. Addition of 80 kg N ha-1 increased overall sorghum LAI by 0.08 units (28%) compared with control plots where no fertiliser was applied but no differences were detected between 40 and 80 kg N ha-1. Further, intercropping reduced the number of fertile tillers m-2 by 6 tillers but addition of N significantly increased the number of fertile tillers m-2 by 1 tiller. Similarly, intercropping significantly reduced CGR of sorghum by 54% for Serena but CGR of Gadam was not affected by intercropping however addition of 80 kg N ha-1 increased overall sorghum CGR by 30% but without difference between 40 and 80 kg N ha-1. Grain yield of Gadam exceeded Serena by 1.33 t ha-1 but irrespective of the cowpea variety, intercropping significantly reduced the grain yield of sorghum by 53% for Gadam and 42% for Serena in Igoji and by 54% for both varieties in Katumani. Addition of 40 kg N ha-1 significantly increased grain yield of sorghum by 0.53 t ha-1 (27%) compared with control plots were no fertiliser was applied but no difference was detected between addition of 40 and 80 kg N ha-1. The harvest index (HI) and N uptake of sole sorghum exceeded counterparts in an intercrop with cowpea by 30% and 0.01 kg m-2 respectively. Addition of N significantly increased N uptake by 0.006 kg m-2 but had no significant effect on HI. Sorghum grain yield was positively and significantly correlated with leaf area index, fertile tillers, panicle weight, harvest index and crop growth rate under sole cropping system however, sorghum grain yield was inconsistently correlated with these traits under intercrop system. Similarly, intercropping significantly reduced the CGR of cowpea by 50% for K80 and 25% for M66 and grain yield of K80 by 54% but grain yield of M66 was not affected by intercropping. On the other hand, addition of N had no significant effect on cowpea growth and yield. The total land equivalent ratio (LER) in both sites was greater unity: 1.4 in Igoji and 1.6 in Katumani. Intercropping reduced the peak leaf greenness (SPADmax) of the flag by 8 SPAD units but delayed leaf senescence at whole plant by 0.2 leaves plant-1 day-1 compared with sole crop system. On the other hand, fertilizer N delayed leaf senescence at both whole-plant and flag-leaf levels. While EC50 did not correlate with grain yield, sorghum yield was positively and significantly correlated with SPADmax, SPADmin and the rate of leaf senescence. The results therefore suggest that the peak leaf greenness of the flag leaf in the period bracketing flowering determined grain yield but the delay in leaf senescence at whole plant level might have been non- functional. Further, although intercropping reduced sorghum yield, present results show that there is potential to exploit cropping system x N interactions to increase yield, especially in wetter environments than in areas with low rainfall. Lack of significant differences in grain yield between the application of 40 and 80 kg N ha-1 suggests that sorghum yield could be maximized at lower N rates. However, further studies are needed to establish the economically optimal N rate in sorghum production. Gadam variety is recommended for commercial production under sole cropping system with addition of N at a rate of 40 kg N ha-1 as raw material for making malt and as food security crop in the study areas due to its high yielding traits, short maturity period compared with Serena however the growth and yield performance of Gadam across ecological zones deserve further investigation. Intercropping and N fertiliser application is only recommended for sorghum production to improve household food security since sorghum/cowpea intercropping was more productive than sole (LER˃1). Screening and breeding of more cowpea varieties compatible for sorghum intercropping is recommended. The effect of competition for resources in sorghum/legume intercropping system and source-sink relationship on sorghum leaf senescence and yield deserve further investigation.

Keywords: EC50, fertilizer nitrogen, intercrop system, leaf greenness, rate of senescence, SPAD, yield




 
TABLE OF CONTENTS
 
DECLARATION ii
DEDICATION iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS vi
LIST OF TABLES x
LIST OF FIGURES xii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS xiv
ABSTRACT xv

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1. Background 1
1.2. Problem statement and justification 5
1.3. Objectives 7
1.4. Hypotheses 7

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. Importance and ecology of sorghum 8
2.2. Sorghum varieties in kenya 10
2.3. Current status of sorghum production and constraints to sorghum production 11
2.4. Consumption of sorghum in kenya and the region 13
2.5. Importance and ecology of cowpea 14
2.6. Nitrogen nutrition of sorghum 17
2.7. Nitrogen nutrition of cowpea 17
2.8. Nitrogen use efficiency in intercrop systems 18
2.9. Water use efficiency in intercrop systems 18
2.10. Radiation use efficiency in intercrop systems 19
2.11. Compatibility of intercrop systems 20
2.12. Intercropping effects on growth and yield of sorghum and cowpea 20
2.13. Patterns of leaf senescence in sorghum 22
2.14. Assessment of the productivity of intercrop systems 23

CHAPTER 3: EFFECT OF SORGHUM-COWPEA INTERCROPPING AND FERTILIZER NITROGEN ON GROWTH AND YIELD OF THE ASSOCIATED CROPS
3.1. Abstract 25
3.2. Introduction 26
3.3. Materials and methods 28
3.3.1. Sites 28
3.3.2. Treatments and experiment design 29
3.3.3. Experiment management 29
3.3.4. Data collection 30
3.3.5. Data analysis 36
3.4. Results 37
3.4.1. Effect of cropping system and nitrogen rates on sorghum phenology 37
3.4.2. Effect of cropping system and nitrogen rate on sorghum growth parameters 37
3.4.3. Effect of cropping system and nitrogen rate on sorghum yield and yield components 45
3.4.4. Effect of cropping system on cowpea phenology 54
3.4.5. Effect of cropping system and nitrogen rate on cowpea growth parameters 54
3.4.6. Effect of cropping system and nitrogen rate on cowpea yield and yield parameters 62
3.4.7. Land equivalent ratio 64
3.4.8. Relationships between sorghum grain yield and yield components 66
3.5. Discussion 67
3.5.1. Effect of intercropping and nitrogen rate on sorghum phenology and growth 67
3.5.2. Effect of intercropping and nitrogen rate on sorghum yield and yield components72
3.5.3. Effect of intercropping and nitrogen rate on cowpea phenology and growth 79
3.5.4. Effect of intercropping and nitrogen rate on cowpea yield and yield components 82
3.5.5. Effects of cropping system × N rate interaction on growth and yield of the sorghum and cowpea 85
3.5.6. Land equivalent ratio 85
3.6. Conclusion 87

CHAPTER 4: INTERCROPPING AND NITROGEN FERTILIZATION ALTERED THE PATTERNS OF LEAF SENESCENCE IN THE CANOPY OF SORGHUM
4.1. Abstract 88
4.2. Introduction 89
4.3. Materials and methods 93
4.3.1. Site 93
4.3.2. Treatments and experiment design 93
4.3.3. Experiment management 93
4.3.4. Data collection 94
4.3.5. Data analysis 97
4.4. Results 97
4.4.1. Senescence at the whole plant level 97
4.4.2. Senescence of the flag leaf 101
4.4.3. Relationships between traits of leaf senescence and grain yield 104
4.5. Discussion 106
4.5.1. Leaf senescence at the whole-plant level 106
4.5.2. Senescence of the flag leaf 107
4.5.3. Association between traits of leaf senescence and grain yield 110
4.5.4. Senescence and the modulation of grain yield 110
4.6. Conclusions 112

CHAPTER 5: GENERAL DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1. General discussion 114
5.2. Conclusion 117
5.3. Recommendations 118
REFERENCES 120




 
LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1. Area under sorghum cultivation, altitude, temperatures and annual rainfall in selected areas in Kenya where sorghum is mainly produced 10

Table 2.2. Plant height, time to flowering, time to maturity, prospective yield, resistance to biotic and abiotic stress and suitable ecological conditions for Serena, Seredo, Gadam, mtama1 sorghum varieties in Kenya 11

Table 2. 3. Sorghum trade and production in Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania and Rwanda 2016-2019 (tonnes). 14

Table 3.1. Soil chemical properties at depth of 0 – 30 cm before planting at Igoji and Katumani KALRO research stations during 2018/2019 short rain season 31

Table 3.2. Leaf area index, dry biomass (DM) at flowering and harvest and crop growth rate (CGR) of two sorghum varieties (Gadam and Serena) grown in sole and intercrop system with two varieties of cowpea (K80 and M66) and at three N rates (0, 40 and 80 kg N ha-1) at Igoji and Katumani KALRO research stations during 2018/2019 short rain season 43

Table 3.3. Sorghum grain yield, harvest index (HI), panicle width and panicle length, and N uptake of two sorghum varieties (Gadam and Serena) grown under sole and intercrop system with two varieties of cowpea (K80 and M66) and at three N rates (0, 40 and 80 kg N ha-1) at Igoji and Katumani KALRO research stations during 2018/2019 short rain season 49

Table 3.4. Number of fertile tillers m-2, panicle weight, Number of spikelets panicle-1 and weight of 1000 seeds of two sorghum varieties (Gadam and Serena) grown in sole and intercrop system with two varieties of cowpea (K80 and M66) and at three N rates (0, 40 and 80 kg N ha-1) at Igoji and Katumani KALRO research stations during 2018/2019 short rain season 53

Table 3.5. Cowpea plant height at 4, 6 and 8 weeks after planting (WAP) of two cowpea varieties (K80 and M66) grown in sole and intercrop system with two varieties of Sorghum (Gadam and Serena) and at three rates of N (0, 40, 80 kg N ha-1) at Igoji and Katumani KALRO research stations during 2018/2019 short rain season 55

Table 3.6. Number of effective root nodules at 4, 6, 8 WAP of two cowpea varieties (K80 and M66) grown in sole and in an intercrop system with two varieties of sorghum (Gadam and Serena) and at three rates of N (0, 40, 80 kg N ha-1) at Igoji and Katumani KALRO research stations during 2018/2019 short rain season 56

Table 3.7. Leaf area index, dry mass (DM) at flowering and harvest, crop growth rate (CGR) of two cowpea varieties (K80 and M66) grown in sole and intercrop system with two varieties of sorghum (Gadam and Serena) and at three N rates (0, 40, 80 kg N ha-1) at Igoji and Katumani KALRO research stations during 2018/2019 short rain season 60

Table 3.8. Cowpea grain yield, number of pods plant-1, number of seeds pod-1 and 100 seed weight of two cowpea varieties (K80 and M66) grown in sole and intercrop system with two varieties of sorghum (Gadam and Serena) and at three N rates (0, 40, 80 kg N ha-1) at Igoji and Katumani KALRO research stations during 2018/2019 short rain season 64

Table 3.9. Partial and total LER of two varieties of sorghum (Gadam and Serena) grown in an intercrop system with two cowpea varieties (K80 and M66) at Igoji and Katumani KALRO research stations during 2018/2019 short rain season 65

Table 3.10. Correlation coefficients between sorghum yield parameters and grain yield grown under sole and intercrop system at Igoji and Katumani KALRO research station during the 2018/2019 short rain season 66

Table 4.1. Number of green leaves at 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50 days after flowering (DAF) of two sorghum varieties (Gadam and Serena) grown under sole and intercrop system with two varieties of cowpea (K80 and M66) and three N rates at Igoji and Katumani KALRO research stations during 2018/2019 short rain season 99

Table 4.2. Maximum leaf greenness (SPADmax), minimum leaf greenness (SPADmin), time to loss of 50% SPADmax (EC50) and the rate of leaf senescence (RS) means of two sorghum varieties (Gadam and Serena) grown under sole and intercrop system with two varieties of cowpea (K80 and M66) and N rate at Igoji and Katumani KALRO research stations during 2018/2019 short rain season 103

Table 4. 3. Correlation coefficients between senescence traits and sorghum grain yield and yield parameters of two sorghum varieties (Gadam and Serena) grown in an intercrop system with two varieties of cowpea (K80 and M66) at 0, 40 and 80 kg N ha-1 at Igoji and Katumani KALRO research stations during the 2018/2019 short rain season 105




 
LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1. Sorghum production, area harvested and grain yield in Kenya, 1990-2017. Source: MoA, 2017 12

Figure 3.1. Weather conditions from sowing to physiological maturity of sorghum at Igoji (a) and Katumani (b) Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization research stations during 2018/2019 short rain season 32

Figure 3.2. Phenology of two sorghum varieties (Gadam and Serena) grown in an intercrop system with two varieties of cowpea (K80 and M66) at Igoji and Katumani KALRO research stations during 2018/2019 short rain season 37

Figure 3.3. Plant height at 4, 6, 8 and 10 WAP of two sorghum varieties (Gadam and Serena) at three N rates (0,40,80 kg N ha-1) at Igoji (a, c) and Katumani (b, d) KALRO research stations during 2018/2019 short rain season 38

Figure 3. 4. Leaf area index, dry biomass at flowering and maturity and crop growth rate (CGR) of two sorghum varieties (Gadam and Serena) grown under sole and intercrop system with two varieties of cowpea (K80 and M66) and in interactions with 0, 40 and 80 kg N ha-1 at Igoji (a, c, e, g) and Katumani (b, d, f, h) KALRO research stations during 2018/2019 short rain season    44

Figure 3.5. Sorghum grain yield, panicle width and length, and harvest index of two sorghum varieties (Gadam and Serena) grown under sole and intercrop system with two varieties of cowpea (K80 and M66) and in interaction with three N rates (0, 40 and 80 kg N ha-1) at Igoji (a, c, e, g) and Katumani (b, d, f, h) KALRO research stations during 2018/2019 short rain season 50

Figure 3.6. N uptake of two sorghum varieties (Gadam and Serena) grown under sole and intercrop system with two varieties of cowpea (K80 and M66) and in interaction with three N rates (0, 40 and 80 kg N ha-1) at Igoji (a) and Katumani (b) KALRO research stations during 2018/2019 short rain season 51

Figure 3.7. Phenology of two cowpea varieties (M66 and K80) grown under sole and an intercrop system with two varieties of sorghum (Gadam and Serena) at Igoji and Katumani KALRO research stations during 2018/2019 short rain season 54

Figure 3.8. Dry biomass (DM) at branching and physiological maturity of two cowpea varieties (K80 and M66) grown under sole and intercrop system with two varieties of Sorghum (Gadam and Serena) and in interaction with three N rates (0, 40, 80 kg N ha-1) at the Igoji (a, c, e) and Katumani (b, d, f) KALRO research stations during 2018/2019 short rain season 61
 
Figure 4.1. Monthly rainfall and temperature from flowering to physiological maturity of sorghum at Igoji (a) and Katumani (b) KALRO research stations during 2018/2019 short rain season 95

Figure 4.2. An illustration of the fitted logistic curve in SigmaPlot and the estimated traits of leaf senescence of two sorghum varieties (Gadam and Serena) grown in sole and an intercrop system with two varieties of cowpea (K80 and M66) at Igoji and Katumani KALRO research stations during 2018/2019 short rain season 96

Figure 4.3. Number leaves that presented more than 50% green leaf area at 10, 20, 40 and 50 days after flowering (DAF) of two sorghum varieties (Gadam and Serena) grown in sole and intercrop system with two varieties of cowpea (K80 and M66) and interactions with 0, 40 and 80 kg N ha-1 at the KALRO research stations in Igoji (a, c, e, g) and Katumani (b, d, f, h) during 2018/2019 short rains season 100

Figure 4.4. Peak leaf greenness (SPADmax) of two sorghum varieties (Gadam and Serena) grown under sole and intercrop system with two varieties of cowpea (K80 and M66) and interactions with 0, 40 and 80 kg N ha-1 at Igoji (a) and Katumani (b) KALRO research stations during 2018/2019 short rain season 104




 
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

ASALs - Arid and semi-arid lands
CGR - Crop growth rate
CS - Cropping system
DAF - Days after planting
EC50 - Time to loss of 50% maximum SPAD (peak leaf greenness)
FAO - Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
GOK - Government of Kenya
HI - Harvest index
ICRISAT - International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics
KALRO - Kenyan Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization
LAI - Leaf area index
LER - Land equivalent ratio
NUE - Nitrogen use efficiency
RUE - Radiation use efficiency
RS - Rate of senescence
SPADmax - Maximum SPAD (peak leaf greenness)
SPADmin - Minimum SPAD
TSP - Triple supper phosphate
UN - United Nations
WAP - Weeks after planting
WUE - Water use efficiency
 




CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1. Background

The current population of Africa is 1.2 billion people however, by 2050 Africa’s population is estimated to rise to 2.4 billion (UN, 2017). Hence, food production should be improved further without adversely affecting the fertility of the soil and the environment (Layek et al., 2018). However, poor management practices among small holder farmers can not realize a good balance between nutrient supply and plant demand which often causes environmental pollution and low crop yields (Dobermann, 2007). Additionally, yield losses of cereals like sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench) are high in dry environments resulting from moisture stress especially at grain filling stage (Kassahun et al., 2010). Land fragmentation practices due to increased population growth have also limited the available land for crop production amidst increasing food demands (Karanja et al., 2014). Therefore, cereal-legume intercropping is considered an appropriate and sustainable practices to increase crop productivity per unit area with reduced external inorganic fertilizer N supply due to the legume ability in the intercrop system to replenish soil nutrients by fixing N in the soil (Ladha and Chakraborty, 2016).

Intercropping system involves growing multiple crops simultaneously in the same piece of land (Iqbal et al., 2019). This practice has been in use for a long time and has contributed to achieve sustainability of the agriculture systems (Layek et al., 2018). Integration of legume such as cowpea into cereal-based cropping systems provides sustainable enrichment of soil physio- chemical properties due to its nitrogen fixing capacity in the soil and helps to stabilize yields by increasing the productivity of land hence protect farmers from the risk of crop failure (Ndiso et al., 2016). The legume improves the nitrogen economy of the cereal by either contributing nitrogen to the soil or removing less amount of soil nitrogen (Layek et al., 2018). Additionally, intercropping contributes to subsequent prevention and reduction of soil erosion and land deterioration through the effective ground cover (Nawal, 1997). Further, intercropping helps to achieve crop diversity in an agricultural system (Baulcombe et al., 2009). The productivity and profitability of intercrop systems can be assessed using various indices including aggressivity ratio, competition ratio, monetary advantage index and using the land equivalent ratio (LER) where yield attained in an intercrop system is expressed relative to yield in a sole crop system (Sibhatu and Belete, 2015).

Sorghum is an essential crop grown globally for food and feed (Deb et al., 2004). The crop is majorly consumed as a grain, but can also be processed into porridges, breads and largely used as raw material for making alcohol (Mundia et al., 2019). Sorghum annual production in Africa is estimated at 20 million metric tonnes representing about 61% of the global total land cultivated and 41%of total global sorghum production (ICRISAT, 2013; Mundia et al., 2019). However, Kenya is among the least sorghum producing countries in Africa where its overall annual production is only 0.6% of Africa’s total annual production (Mitaru et al., 2012). Of the total sorghum annually produced in Kenya, 53% is utilised as food (either as grain or flour), 24% is processed to make malt, 11% is lost as waste, 10% for animal feed and 2% used as seed (Kilambya and Witwer, 2013).

Further, Kenya’s sorghum productivity remains at 0.8 t ha-1 despite development of high yield varieties with expected potential yield of between 2 and 5 t ha-1 making Kenya a net importer of sorghum in the region (Ochieng, 2011; Kilambya and Witwer, 2013). This is because of low soil fertility (N deficiency), poor management practices, continuous nutrient mining without replenishment, unpredictably low rainfalls, pests and diseases, birds infestation and weeds such as striga with capacity to cause 40% to 100% crop loss in the Sub-Saharan region (FAO and ICRISAT, 1996; Mitaru et al., 2012). Further, sorghum production is characterized by low use of inputs due to high and unaffordable costs by smallholder farmers (Muui et al., 2013).

Additionally, sorghum inability to meet its nitrogen requirement through own fixation has contributed to major yield constraints (Franzmann, 1993; Dorcas et al., 2019). However, the demand for sorghum has increased in the recent past due to its use as raw material for beer production; however, the current production cannot meet this demand (Kilambya and Witwer, 2013). Therefore, intercropping sorghum with legume like cowpea with effective biological nitrogen fixation (BNF), would increase nitrogen (N) availability through ‘N’ fixation to be utilized by sorghum hence increasing overall crop productivity (Egesa et al., 2016). Further, integration of fertilizer N at reduced rate to supplement N fixed by the legume symbiotically would help fully meet the N requirements of sorghum, reduce cost of fertilizers N and increase grain yield (Shamme and Raghavaiah, 2016).

Primarily, cereal-legume intercropping aims at increasing productivity of crops per unit land area by ensuring growth resources are efficiently utilized (Layek et al., 2018). The legumes in an intercrop improve soil fertility through BNF and decrease the competition for nitrogen in soil (Egesa et al., 2016). Additionally, soil conservation can be achieved through intercropping due to increased ground cover, thus, will reduce soil erosion and excessive rate of evaporation (Layek et al., 2018).

Despite the wide practice of intercropping, crop yields have remained low. Further, the success of an intercrop system largely depends on the compatibility of the companion crops, cropping density and intensity of competition for growth resources (Vasilakoglou et al., 2008). For instance, sorghum grain yield was significantly reduced in an intercrop system attributed to inter- species competition for growth resources and space (Karanja et al., 2014). Additionally, Sibhatu and Belete (2015) reported that sole sorghum exceeded 31% of the intercropped sorghum yield. Other limitations are attributed to nutrient-depleting nature of cereals like sorghum hence the N symbiotically fixed by the legume in an intercrop system alone may not fully meet its N requirement without external fertilizer N supply (Layek et al., 2018).

Nitrogen (N) is among the most deficient nutrients in many agricultural soils for cereal production on a global basis but is essential in crop growth (Yagoub and Abdelsalam, 2010). Higher crop yields have been attained by increasing N addition and improving fertilizer N efficacy (Dobermann, 2007). Further, increased growth and yield of sorghum with addition of N in the form of urea has been reported (Ahmed and Tanki, 1997). However, N losses remain a challenge in agricultural systems where, 30-50% of the applied nitrogen fertiliser continue being lost through leaching, denitrification and runoff (Shamme and Raghavaiah, 2016). Therefore, agricultural best management practices are required to reduce nutrient losses and prevent negative impact on the environment (Roberts, 2007).

Further, the use of N-fertilizer is expected to rise to match the increasing food demand of a rapidly growing world-wide population hence optimization strategies such as precision application of N-fertilizer practices are required (Sawargaonkar et al., 2013). Additionally, the costs of inorganic fertilizers are continuously rising and unaffordable to most small holder farmers hence integrating legumes like cowpea with effective biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) in sorghum cropping systems could reduce on the amounts of fertilizer N to be externally supplied and will cushion farmers from the high costs (Sibhatu and Belete, 2015). However, information on the appropriate N rates for sorghum production in an intercrop system to improve nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) remains limited (Kanampiu et al., 1997). Further, while previous studies have reported that prolonged leaf greenness has been correlated with higher grain yield in monocarpic crops like wheat (Kitonyo et al., 2017) and maize (Kitonyo et al., 2018), the current knowledge on the effect of sorghum-cowpea intercropping and varying levels of nitrogen application on leaf senescence in sorghum and its association with sorghum grain yield remains limited.

1.2. Problem statement and justification

Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench) is an essential cereal as a food security crop and a raw material for making malt thus, increasing its productivity could end severe food insecurity and increase incomes of smallholder farmers in the dryland environments due to its unique traits of tolerating moisture stress and high yielding ability in a wide range of soils (Mwadalu and Mwangi, 2013). However, despite the development of improved varieties, the yield of sorghum has remained significantly low in the dryland environments (0.8 t ha-1) in comparison to expected grain yield of between 2 and 5 t ha-1 due to soil infertility and inappropriate cropping practices (Kilambya and Witwer, 2013). The former has been attributed to nitrogen deficiency resulting from constant loss of soil nutrients (N) without replenishment and high cost of inputs affecting farmers’ ability to apply sufficient N fertilisers to improve soil fertility while the latter results from limited information on appropriate cropping systems for sorghum production and limited skills among smallholder sorghum farmers (Kilambya and Witwer, 2013; Mwadalu and Mwangi, 2013). In Kenya, nitrogen deficiency and late water deficit account for yield losses of 37,000 and 11,000 tonnes per year (T yr-1) respectively (Wortmann et al., 2009; Kassahun et al., 2010). As a result of the low sorghum yields ha-1, most farmers engage in subsistence sorghum production making Kenya a net importer of sorghum to meet increased market demand (Ochieng, 2011). Therefore, in order to increase sorghum productivity to offset the current sorghum deficit, enhance food and nutrition security due to its nutritional importance as well as increase income of sorghum farmers through sale of sorghum as raw material for making malt, its critical to address the challenge of soil infertility in the dryland environments due to N deficiency and inappropriate cropping practices which are the main l root causes of low sorghum grain yield especially in the ASALs.

Intercropping sorghum with cowpea and nitrogen application may have the ability to enhance soil fertility. Additionally, cereal-legume intercropping could be a remedy to address moisture stress in the ASALs through improved land cover by the legumes which leads to retention of moisture and increased crop productivity per unit area of land available (Sibhatu and Belete, 2015). Also, a combination of intercropping and application of varying nitrogen rates would provide information on the appropriate nitrogen rates in an intercropping system that would optimize sorghum yields and ensure improved nitrogen use efficiency and profitability. Further, legume intercropping and fertilizer N application could prolong sorghum leaf senescence which has been reported to profoundly impact grain yield and quality by regulating source-sink relationships for nutrient demand (Feller et al., 2008; Gong et al., 2019). Further, prolonged leaf greenness has been correlated with higher grain yield in sorghum (Kassahun et al., 2010; Christopher et al., 2014), wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) (Kitonyo et al., 2017) and maize (Zea mays L.) (Kitonyo et al., 2018).
 
1.3. Objectives

The main objective was to improve the productivity of sorghum through intercropping and nitrogen fertilizer application. The study specific objectives were:

i. To determine the effect of intercropping and nitrogen on crop growth and yield of selected varieties of sorghum and cowpea

ii. To investigate the effect of intercropping sorghum with cowpea and fertilizer nitrogen on the time-course of sorghum leaf senescence

1.4. Hypotheses

i. Intercropping sorghum with cowpea and fertilizer N increases the yield of sorghum.

ii. Intercropping sorghum with cowpea and fertilizer N delays senescence of sorghum plants.
 

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    ABSTRACT This study analyzed the effects of labour turnover on productivity in Nigerian Bottling Company Plc and 7up Bottling Company Plc, Aba, Nigeria. Specifically, the study determined the effect of workers retention (pay and allowance) on quantity of sales in Nigerian Bottling Company Plc and 7up Bottling Company Plc Aba; determined the effect of training of workers on profit in Nigerian Bottling Company Plc, and 7up Bottling Company Plc Aba; investigated the effect of promotion on output in Nigerian Bottling Company Plc, and 7up Bottling Company Plc, Aba; and determined the effect of skills of workers on customers satisfaction in Nigerian Bottling Company Plc, and 7up Bottling Company Plc, Aba. Primary and secondary data were used for the study. The secondary data covered between 2010 and 2019. A total of 345 respondents consisting of 190 respondents from Nigerian Bottling Company Plc and 155 respondents from 7up Bottling Company Plc were used for the study after retrieving the questionnaire. Also, a total of 345 customers consisting of 190 customers that patronizes the Nigerian Bottling Company Plc and 155 customers that patronizes the 7up Bottling Company Plc were used for the study. Data obtained were analyzed using simple regression technique and mean score. Pearson product moment correlation coefficient (r) and simple regression were used to test the various formulated hypotheses for the study. Findings shows that retention (pay and allowance) of workers has significant positive effect on quantity of sales in both Nigerian Bottling Company Plc and 7up Bottling Company Plc, Aba. Training of workers have significant positive effect on profit in both Nigerian Bottling Company Plc and 7up Bottling Company Plc, Aba. Promotion of workers have significant positive effect on output in both Nigerian Bottling Company Plc and 7up Bottling Company Plc, Aba. Skills of workers have significant positive effect on customers’ satisfaction in both Nigerian Bottling Company Plc and 7up Bottling Company Plc, Aba. The study recommends that efforts aimed at tackling labour turnover in Nigerian Bottling Company Plc and 7up Bottling Company Plc should focus more on developing the proficiency of workers through a need-identified training. Prompt promotion of workers and the use of other compensation incentives that should increase the willingness of employees to remain at work is strongly advocated. Many bottling industries such as the Nigerian Bottling Company Plc and 7up Bottling Company Plc, Aba require a formidable workforce to have a competitive edge amidst her competitors. CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY In today's global environment, each business must have a strong labour turnover avoidance policy in place to guarantee that the finest minds and well-experienced employees contributing to the organization's overall growth and development are kept. Employer turnover should be reduced as a result of this. This is because labour turnover is one element that may impact employee retention, organizational profit, production, and customer satisfaction with the organization's products and services in a positive or negative way. The sort of labour turnover prevention program that will encourage employees to perform well will be determined by how well it meets their needs for status, job security, and survival, as defined by Maslow's hierarchy of needs (1943 and 1954). Managerial and supervisory turnover has long been a key human relations issue, and its importance in any particular company cannot be overstated. Almost all employers of labour confront a big problem with labour turnover nowadays, all around the world (Barmase and Shukla, 2013). This is due to the fact that it creates a significant financial strain on businesses and has a negative impact on productivity. Labour turnover is a serious workplace problem that cannot be overlooked by any meaningful and target driven organisation. Organizations all around the globe must endeavor to regulate and reduce labour turnover since it has both economic and psychological implications on production. In terms of psychological consequences, labour turnover has been associated with a number of negative job attributes such as low level of job satisfaction, low esteem for promotion opportunities, mental stress on the part of management on how best to sort and replace exited experienced workers etc. As a result, when a person departs abruptly, it throws the entire organization's production strategy into disarray. This might have a significant impact on the organization's production and, as a result, its effectiveness. If the company provides a service, employee turnover may have an impact on the quality and/or quantity of service provided, especially if one person's output is the input of another (Blau, 2014). Hill and Twist (2015) define labor turnover as withdrawal behaviors that lead psychologists to believe that it is the result of unfavorable workplace attitudes affected by factors such as income, job security, recognition and appreciation, working hours, and physical conditions, among others. There are also psychological withdrawal behaviors such as a lack of creativity or putting in little effort on a work, which frequently show as laziness and an unwillingness to think and enhance creativity (Pinder, 2018). There is also an attempt to comprehend managerial turnover and determine why employees leave their jobs. Carbery, Garavan, Brien, and McDomel (2013) believe that, all other things being equal, management turnover is likely to be lower than operational turnover, which might be due to the fact that they are more devoted and have a stake in the company. Labour turnover also has the effect of impeding the attainment of larger corporate objectives since it necessitates a significant investment in training, induction, growth, and skills development to replace personnel who leave the company. Controlling labour turnover, on the other hand, is critical for businesses and must be handled well due to the impact it has on organizational productivity (Adewole, 2017). In Nigeria, the issue of labour turnover cannot be neglected by many firms operating in the country. This is because ineffective labour turnover management in any Nigerian organization would have a significant negative impact on not just that organization's performance and output, but also on the economy as a whole. For example, in the late 1980s and early 1990s, Nigeria experienced a turning point in her history when Nigerian universities lost a slew of well-trained teachers in what became known as the "Brain-drain." Perhaps the situation that occurred in our universities had an impact on some businesses, such as the Nigerian Bottling Company Plc. and the 7up Bottling Company Plc., where some of these academics serve as consultants. Terrible pay rates, a lack of advancement, a lack of sufficient training of trained and competent labour force, and a poor work environment may have all contributed to such a choice to quit a company (Adewole, 2017). This is likely to have an impact on the manufacturing line in terms of profit maximization. The situation hasn't altered much since then, and many businesses are calculating their losses (Orji, 2018). According to a Mercer report on the total financial impact of employee turnover, the cost of labour turnover is sometimes misunderstood, seen as incalculable, or disregarded as a minor expense, yet the total cost of labour turnover is considerable, accounting for 36 percent of payroll. The actual cost of employing someone to cover absentee employees is a significant but frequently ignored expense. In Nigeria bottling firm and 7up Bottling Company Plc. Aba, Nigeria, this is a typical practice in enterprises that leads to a certain level of turnover and its probable impacts on productivity. Organizational Productivity is defined as an organization's, institution's, or business's ability to achieve desired outcomes with the least amount of energy, time, money, staff, material, and so on. It is a measure of an organization's ability to meet its output targets via the use of its labour, authority strategies, machinery, equipment, and assets (Adewole, 2017). Productivity increase is crucial for organizations since delivering more goods and services to customers equates to better profitability. As productivity rises, an organization's resources may be converted into revenues, allowing it to pay stakeholders while reserving cash flows for future development and expansion. With increased productivity, an economy may create and consume more products and services for the same amount of effort. Individuals (workers and customers), company executives, and analysts all value productivity (such as policymakers and government statisticians). Labour turnover is inextricably linked to an organization's productivity and is frequently a sign of other issues confronting both the organization and its personnel. A variety of strategies have been proposed by management scholars in order to overcome high rates of labour turnover among employees and enhance employee retention. According to Ibrahim, Usman, and Bagudu (2013), employees who resigned their employment did so due to bad working circumstances that required them to execute their tasks. Poor working circumstances owing to physical factors may result in reduced productivity and general job unhappiness. Nigerian bottling firms, such as Nigerian Bottling Company (NBC) and 7up Bottling Company Plc. (7UP), are not immune to the effects of high labor turnover. The capacity of these businesses to fulfill rising demand for their goods and services is heavily reliant on the efficiency of their skilled employees, who assure optimal production, sales, and profit margins. Labour turnover, particularly among experienced employees, is a major and continuous issue that employers of labor in these organizations are concerned about. This is due to the high expense of finding a substitute for such high quality, which is sometimes difficult to come by. Most new employees are more prone to accidents since there are more breakages and they make more mistakes than experienced workers, resulting in the expense of replacing a man exceeding the recruiting projections by a significant margin (Stessin, 2011). When a company's labor turnover is a problem, management must identify the root reasons, monitor the turnover rate, calculate the cost of turnover, and solve the issue. Given the reality of unemployment and economic hardship in Nigeria, knowing the impact of labor turnover on productivity at Nigerian Bottling Company (NBC) and 7up Bottling Company Plc. is crucial. Such knowledge will aid these businesses in developing effective labor turnover prevention plans that will allow them to function sustainably and adequately satisfy consumer needs as well as corporate objectives. As a result, the purpose of this study was to examine in depth how labor turnover management affects organizational productivity of Nigerian Bottling Company (NBC) and 7up Bottling Company Plc in Aba, Nigeria. 1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM Despite the fact that there appear to be no permanent solutions, attempts have been made to reduce the problem of labour turnover. Many individuals have left their jobs due to factors such as professional progress, more promising positions, and external incentives such as higher pay scales, promotion in other companies, and pleasant working circumstances. High labour turnover can have a negative influence on a company's production. However, because of the restricted resources available for staff recruiting, the negative impacts on firms might be extremely severe. Employees who are happy in their jobs are less likely to leave. High employee turnover is typically a sign of a longer-term issue, such as a lack of improved pay structures, training or career opportunities, or promotion, to name a few. Workers who are dissatisfied with their occupations are inclined to depart (Mobly, 2017). Mobly (2017) goes on to say that being dissatisfied with a job isn't the only reason why individuals switch jobs; it may also be because the talents and competencies they possess are in high demand. They may be enticed to leave for greater salary, perks, or career advancement opportunities. Because enterprises have little influence over what happens in other firms, they may take efforts to boost employee morale in the workplace, making people who work for them happy and productive. For companies like Nigerian Bottling Company Plc. and 7up Bottling Company Plc., employee turnover is a major issue. The high rate of labor turnover in bottling businesses, which has risen to about 15% in Nigerian Bottling Company Plc. in 2019 (NBC, 2019) and 22% in 7up Bottling Company Plc. in 2019 (NBC, 2019), is one of the issues that inspired this study (7up, 2019). It is important to remember that a high labour turnover rate reduces an organization's revenue and profitability through lowering productivity. Another issue is that labour turnover increases hiring costs and training expenses, which is especially problematic in organizations that need to replace individuals with specialized skills and a high educational level to fill complicated job responsibilities. Recruiting new employees to replace those who have left the company might be a positive start in the right direction. However, their ability to match the unique abilities necessary for complicated activities previously performed by top executives, as well as highly paid vocations, is subject to cost impacts, making their replacement extremely challenging for the organization. This is likely to have a noticeable impact on the productivity of the company. This is not to suggest that every employee who leaves a company is dissatisfied with their work. Some people will retire, leave town, or abandon their jobs due to family obligations, a desire to change careers, or even the urge to start their own business (Kiunsi,2014). In terms of labour turnover management, there is a knowledge vacuum and a point of departure for prior studies on labour turnover and organizational productivity. There is a knowledge gap in understanding the effect of worker retention (pay and allowance) on sales quantity, the effect of worker training on profit, the effect of promotion on output and effect of workers skills on customers satisfaction in Nigerian Bottling Company Plc. and 7up Bottling Company Plc. Aba. Against this backdrop, this research work investigates labour turnover management and organisational productivity of Nigerian Bottling Company Plc. and 7up Bottling Company Plc in Aba, Nigeria. 1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY The major aim of this study is to analyze the effects of labour turnover on productivity in Nigerian Bottling Company Plc., and 7up Bottling Company Plc., Aba, Abia state, Nigeria. Specifically, the study sought to examine the following objectives: (1) determine the effect of workers retention (pay and allowance) on sales quantity in Nigerian Bottling Company Plc. and 7up Bottling Company Plc. Aba; (2) determine the effect of workers training on profit in Nigerian Bottling Company Plc., and 7up Bottling Company Plc. Aba; (3) investigate the effect of promotion on output in Nigerian Bottling Company Plc., and 7up Bottling Company Plc., Aba; (4) determine the effect of workers skills on customers’ satisfaction in Nigerian Bottling Company Plc., and 7up Bottling Company Plc., Aba. 1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS Based on the specific objectives, the following research questions were raised. 1) What effect has workers’ retention (pay and allowance) on sales quantity in Nigerian Bottling Company Plc. and 7up Bottling Company Plc. Aba? 2) What effect has workers training on profit in Nigerian Bottling Company Plc., and 7up Bottling Company Plc. Aba? 3) What effect has promotion of workers on output in Nigerian Bottling Company Plc., and 7up Bottling Company Plc., Aba? 4) What effect has workers skills on customers satisfaction in Nigerian Bottling Company Plc., and 7up Bottling Company Plc., Aba? 1.5 RESEARCH HYPOTHESES From the above research questions, the following null hypotheses were formulated to guide the study. H01: There is no significant effect of workers’ retention (pay and allowance) on sales quantity in Nigerian Bottling Company Plc. and 7up Bottling Company Plc. Aba. H02: There is no significant effect of workers training on profit in Nigerian Bottling Company Plc., and 7up Bottling Company Plc. Aba. H03: Promotion of workers does not significantly correlate with output in Nigerian Bottling Company Plc., and 7up Bottling Company Plc., Aba, Nigeria. H04: Workers skills have no significant effect on customers’ satisfaction in Nigerian Bottling Company Plc., and 7up Bottling Company Plc., Aba, Nigeria. 1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY The significance of this study is divided into empirical and theoretical significance. Empirical significance: This research will serve as a resource for all organizational management, particularly the management and employees of Nigerian Bottling Company Plc. and 7Up Bottling Company Plc. in Aba, Nigeria, in understanding labour turnover management and organizational productivity. The research will assist both commercial and public organizations, including the government, in limiting their human resource capabilities by implementing methods to minimize labour turnover through worker retention, training, rapid promotion, and skill development. It would give important information to Nigerian businesses' management and staff on employee retention and limiting the negative influence of labour turnover on organizational productivity. Theoretical significance: This study has contributed to the current body of information on labour turnover and organizational productivity. This study will be useful to scholars and postgraduate students in the Departments of Industrial Relations and Personnel Management, Business Administration, and Entrepreneurship because it will serve as a reference material for future researchers on the effects of labour turnover on organizational productivity. It may also pique the interest of other academies in conducting more study on the reasons and constraints of labour turnover in a company. The study will also help the Nigerian public and people in other disciplines understand the impact of labour turnover on the productivity of Nigerian Bottling Company Plc. and 7Up Bottling Company Plc., Aba. 1.7 SCOPE OF THE STUDY The scope of the study is divided into unit scope, content scope, and geographical scope. Unit scope: This study is on individual level of analysis of selected bottling companies in Aba. Content scope: This study covers only labour turnover management on organizational productivity between 2010 and 2019. Geographical scope: This study covered the Nigerian Bottling Company Plc. and 7Up Bottling Company Plc., Aba, Nigeria. 1.8 LIMITATION OF THE STUDY The most significant restriction of the study is having access to the office since the setting was extremely limited for security reasons, and entry into the business was mostly by invitation. As a result, obtaining an invitation to share the questionnaire and conduct interviews was extremely difficult, and there were limits on the number of times the researcher was authorized to enter the offices where the necessary information was obtained. As a result, the researcher had to devote many months to data gathering during the research process. Furthermore, there was a constraint on the number of years of information the researcher could be given by the organisations, since the selected bottling businesses only granted the researcher access to ten (10) years of data on different labour turnover management indicators and organisational productivity. Another difficulty encountered in performing this study was the inability to express the dependent variable "productivity" as well as the independent variable "labour turnover" with appropriate indicators for each specific aim. For this study, it took the intervention of the supervisory committee to resort to quantity of sales, profit, output, and customer satisfaction as appropriate indicators of organisational productivity, as well as worker retention (pay, allowances), worker training, promotion, and worker skills as appropriate indicators of labour turnover management. Generally, eliciting the required information from the various issues of the annual reports of Nigerian Bottling Company Plc. and 7Up Bottling Company Plc., Aba were the major constraint encountered in completing the study. The researcher was put through rigorous methods of transforming existing information to fit the necessary variables for the investigation. 1.9 OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF TERMS Labour turnover: - This is the overall change in the number of people employed in a business entity during a particular period. It takes into consideration the number of exiting personnel, new joinees and the total number of workers as listed in the payroll at the end of a given period. Productivity: - is a phenomenon, which is concerned with the utilization of resources to produce a given output, the resources could be labour materials and capital. Incentives: - Something, which encourages you to work harder, start new activities. Remuneration: - An amount of money paid to someone for work done. Promotion: - is the Vertical movement of employees in the organization to a position of higher authority. Profit: - This is the financial benefit realized when revenue generated from a given business activity or numerous business activities exceeds the expenses, cost and taxes involved in sustaining the business activity in question. It calculated as the naira difference between total revenue and total expenses Output: - This is the number of units of goods produced in a specific time period. The period could be monthly or yearly. Retention: Retention refers to employees’ abilities to not only absorb and retain training or specialized skills, but to apply the learned skills to their job. Worker/Employee retention: Refers to the ability of an organization to retain its employees Sales quantity: This is the number of units of goods sold in a specific time period. The period could be daily, weekly, monthly, quarterly, biannually or yearly. Consumer satisfaction: Consumer satisfaction is a term that measures how products or services supplied by a company meet or surpass a customers’ expectation. Customer satisfaction is important because it provides marketers and business owners with the metric that they can use to manage and improve their businesses as well as shows how productively relevant the organisation is to its business environment.   CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 2.1 CONCEPTUAL REVIEW 2.1.1 Labour turnover Labor turnover, also known as staffing turnover, is defined as the ratio of employees who leave a firm due to attrition, dism

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