ABSTRACT
This study investigates the invitro antimicrobial activity of shea butter and virgin coconut oil on Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Streptococcus mutans and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The isolates were subjected to antibacterial susceptibility test using the paper disc diffusion method and the minimum inhibition concentration (MIC) of the oils was determined using the broth dilution method. Staphylococcus aureus (3.50±0.40mm) was the most susceptible to shea butter while Streptococcus mutans (3.66±0.47mm) was most susceptible to virgin coconut oil; Pseudomonas aeruginosa (1.00±0.00mm) showed the least sensitivity to both oils. The MIC of shea butter was 50% against all the test organisms except Pseudomonas aeruginosa (100%). Virgin coconut oil also had MIC of 50% while the MIC of the synergistic assay of both oils was 25% against all isolates. The efficacy of the synergistic effect of the oils was comparable to that of standard antibiotics; Cloxacillin and Ceftriaxone. The physicochemical analysis of shea butter and virgin coconut oil was carried out using standard analytical procedures and confirmed their suitability as raw materials for food, cosmetic and pharmaceutical products. This study recommends the use of both oils as therapeutic agents as well as a potential source of antibiotic substance for drug development.
TABLE
OF CONTENTS
Title
Page i
Certification
ii
Dedication
iii
Acknowledgements
iv
Table
of Contents v
Lists
of Tables vii
Abstract ix
CHAPTER ONE
1.0
Introduction 1
1.1
Aim and Objectives 4
CHAPTER TWO
2.0
Literature Review 5
2.1
Shea butter Tree 5
2.2
Production of Shea butter 6
2.3
Composition of Shea butter 7
2.4
Uses of Shea butter 8
2.5
Therapeutic Uses of Shea butter 8
2.6
Coconut Tree 9
2.7
Coconut Fruit 10
2.8
Coconut Water 10
2.9
Coconut Milk 11
2.10
Extraction of Coconut Oil 11
2.11
Composition of Coconut Oil 12
2.12
Uses of Coconut Oil 13
2.13
Therapeutic Uses of Coconut Oil 13
2.14
Overview of Test Organisms 14
2.15
Antibacterial Agents 18
2.16
Antibacterial Susceptibility and Resistance 18
2.17
Antibacterial Synergy 20
CHAPTER THREE
3.0
Materials and Method 21
3.1
Collection of Samples 21
3.2
Preparation of Virgin Coconut Oil 21
3.3
Sterilization 21
3.4
Collection and Maintenance of Test Organisms 21
3.5
Assay of Antibacterial activity of Shea butter and Virgin coconut oil 22
3.6
Synergistic Antibacterial Assay 22
3.7
Minimum Inhibitory Concentration 23
3.8
Statistical Analysis 23
3.9
Physicochemical Analysis 24
3.9.1
Determination of Saponification value 24
3.9.2
Determination of Iodine value 25
3.9.3
Determination of Acid value 25
3.9.4
Determination of Smoke, Flash and Fire point 26
3.9.5
Determination of Moisture content 26
3.9.6
Determination of Peroxide Value 27
3.9.7
Determination of Refractive index 27
3.9.8
Determination of Melting point 28
3.9.9
Determination of Free fatty acid 28
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0
Results 29
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0
Discussion, Conclusion and Recommendation 34
5.1
Discussion 34
5.2
Conclusion 37
5.3
Recommendation 38
References 39
LIST OF TABLES
TableTitlePage
4.1 Antibacterial activity of Shea butter against the test
organisms 30
4.2 Antibacterial activity of Virgin coconut oil against
the test organisms 31
4.3 Synergistic antibacterial activity of
Shea butter and Virgin coconut oil
against
the test organisms
32
4.4 Physicochemical analysis of Shea butter
and Virgin coconut oil 33
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The development of antimicrobial agents
has been undeniably one of the greatest accomplishments of modern medicine. The
discovery of sulphonamide antibiotics in the 1930s and penicillin in the 1940s
reacted in a drastic reduction of fatality rates associated with bacterial
infection. This breakthrough in the treatment of microbial infections prompted
a concerted effort in the search for novel antibiotics during the following
three decades and this search has produced many antimicrobial drugs of natural
origin (Ayankunle et al., 2012). The rapid emergence of resistant
bacteria is occurring worldwide endangering the efficacy of antibiotics which
transformed medicine and saved millions of lives. In recent years, the multiple
drug resistance crisis encountered in both human and plant pathogens has been
attributed to the indiscriminate use of available antimicrobial drugs commonly
used in the treatment of infectious diseases as well as lack of new drug
development by the pharmaceutical industry due to reduced economic incentives
and challenging regulatory requirements (Ventola, 2015). The increase in
immunocompromised hosts as a result of the spread of Human Immunodeficiency
Virus infection, the increased use of immunosuppressive agents in organ
transplantation, aggressive anticancer chemotherapy and improved lifesaving
medical techniques necessitating indwelling catheters have also led to a
substantial increase in the occurrence of serious infections which in turn
causes longer hospital stays, higher medical costs and increased mortality
(WHO, 2018). New resistance mechanisms are emerging and spreading globally,
threatening the ability to treat common infectious diseases such as pneumonia,
tuberculosis, salmonellosis, gonorrhea and food-borne diseases, as antibiotics
become less effective. Without urgent action we are headed for a
post-antibiotic era in which common infections and minor injuries can once
again kill (WHO, 2018). Thus, coordinated efforts to implement new policies,
renew research efforts and pursue steps to manage the crisis are greatly needed
(Ventola, 2015).
The limited life span of antibiotics has
rendered a necessity to search for new antimicrobial substances from various
sources such as medicinal plants. Plants used in traditional medicine are one of
the most promising areas in the search for new biologically active compounds.
Medicinal plants are well-known natural sources for the treatment of various
diseases since antiquity. Natural products; either as pure compounds or
standardized plant extracts, provide unlimited opportunities for new drug leads
because of the unmatched availability of chemical diversity (Muruganantham,
2012). The practice of complementary alternative medicine is now on the
increase in developing countries in response to World Health Organization
directives culminating in several preclinical and clinical studies that have
provided the scientific basis for the efficacy of many plants used in folk
medicine to treat infections (Fife, 2013). In developing countries like
Nigeria, poor people such as farmers, rural dwellers and native communities use
traditional medicine for the treatment of common illnesses (John et al., 2017).
Shea butter is a slightly yellowish or
ivory coloured natural fat from the nut
of Butyrospermum parkii also called Vitellaria paradoxa (Thomas et
al., 2015). Shea butter is a triglyceride (fat) derived mainly from stearic
and oleic acid. Though a fat, it is not extracted in fluid state like other
oils but is processed in the form of a white, odourless and nearly tasteless
creamy paste or similar to firm butter. Vitellaria paradoxa is known as
Shea butter tree in English, Kandanya in Hausa, Okwuma in Igbo and Ori in
Yoruba (Ayankunle et al., 2012). V. paradoxa has been
studied as a potent medicinal plant against bacterial infections and fungal
infections (Ajijolakewu and Awarun, 2015). Shea butter is widely utilized for
domestic purposes such as in cooking, as a skin moisturizer and commercially as
an ingredient in cosmetic, pharmaceutical and edible products (Ademola et al.,
2012). Its antioxidant properties have led to its use in the protection of skin
from sun burn, eczema, and as a skin rejuvenator. It is used to threat
inflammation, rashes, dermatitis, ulcer and rheumatism, the paste is taken
orally to cure stomach ache in humans and applied to treat chronic sores
(Ajijolakewu and Awarun, 2015). Analysis of shea butter revealed the presence
of phenolic compounds such as gallic acid, catechin, epicatechin, epicatechin
gallate, gallocatechin, epigallocatechin, epigallocatechin gallate as well as
quercetin and transcinnamic acid (Muruganantham, 2012).
For thousands of years, tropical countries
have used coconut from the tree Cocos nucifera, family Arecaceae,
as an integral part of their diet and livelihood. Virgin coconut oil (VCO) is
the oil resulting from the fresh and mature kernel of coconut through
mechanical and natural means, either with the use of heat or not provided that
it does not lead to alteration or transformation of the oil (Mansor et al.,
2012). This oil has attained superstardom in the health and food world in the
recent years, celebrities adopting its use, nutritionists advocating and
patients acclaiming its many virtues. Despite the growing popularity some are
skeptical for its many health benefits sound too good to be true. About half of
the saturated fat content of coconut oil is Lauric acid, a rare medium chain
fatty acid (MCFA) found in human milk that supports healthy metabolism and is
now being studied for its antibacterial, antifungal and antiviral
health-protecting properties (Elmore et al., 2014). The main
bioactive constituents of coconut oil are tocopherol, fatty alcohol,
triterphene alcohol and sterols, all having antioxidant properties that
benefits the skin by restoring its radiance as it exfoliates the outer layer of
skin to strengthen the underlying connective tissues. Coconut oil has
antimicrobial properties against Yeast infections caused by Candida albicans
(John et al., 2017) and Trichophyton, a fungus that causes Tinea fungal infections
like ringworm, athlete foot and jock itch. It also has antibacterial properties
and is effective against variety of viruses that are lipid coated like
Influenza virus, Leukemia virus, Visna virus, Epstein-barr virus, Hepatitis C
virus and Pneumonia virus. The medium chain fatty acids (MCFAs) in coconut oil
such as lauric acid, caprylic acid and capric acid primarily destroy these
organisms by disrupting their cell membranes, interfering virus assembly and
maturation. Of the saturated fatty acids, lauric acid has greater antiviral
activity than either caprylic acid, capric acid or myristic acid (Debmandal and
Mandal, 2011).
In line with the need to search for more
effective and safe antibacterial drugs and to justify the immense traditional
use of shea butter and coconut oil in the treatment of infectious diseases,
this research work investigates the antibacterial activity of these oils on Staphylococcus
aureus, Escherichia coli,
Streptococcus mutans and Pseudomonas
aeruginosa.
1.1 Aim and Objectives
The aim of this research work is to
investigate the efficacy of Virgin coconut oil and Shea butter as antibacterial
agents against the studied pathogenic organisms. The specific objectives are:
a. To
determine the antibacterial activity of shea butter and coconut oil separately.
b. To
determine the synergistic effect of shea butter and coconut oil in comparison
to the antibacterial activity of the oils separately.
c. To
make a comparison between the antibacterial activity of shea butter and coconut
oil (separately and synergistically), and that of commonly used antibiotics.
d. To
determine the Minimum inhibitory concentration of both oils.
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