ABSTRACT
The aim of this study was to assess the utilization, chemical and sensory evaluation of ‘Mmeme’ (Asystacia gagentica) and ‘Inyang-afia (Amaranthus hybridus).Vegetables were cleaned, analyzed using standard methods like proximate compositions, minerals (Na, K, ph, Ca, Mg, Fe, Zn and Mn), Vitamin A, C and anti-nutritional factors (Oxalate, phytate and tannin). Data obtained from the study were analyzed using mean, standard deviations and student t-test was used to test the mean sensory scores of the pottage samples for the significant different (P<0.05) between the mean. Proximate analysis revealed that protein content in ‘mmeme’ leaf was significantly (P<0.05) higher (12.3mg/100g) compared to protein in ‘inyang-afia’ (6.63mg/100g), carbohydrate in ‘mmeme’ and ‘inyang-afia’ were observed to be (77.78mg/100g and 81.25mg/100g) respectively, moisture contents 8.94mg/100g in ‘inyang-afia’ was significantly (P<0.05) higher than 6.63mg/100g in ‘mmeme’, fiber content 1.67mg/100g in ‘mmeme’ was higher than ‘inyang-afia’ 1.01mg/100g while energy value 324.96 kcal in ‘inyang-afia’ was observed to have the highest value. In terms of mineral compositions, K content 55.05mg/100g in ‘mmeme’ was significantly (P<0.05) higher than 10.55mg/100g in ‘inyang-afia’, ph in ‘mmeme’ 26.51mg/100g while ‘inyang-afia was 20.62mg/100g, Ca in ‘mmeme’ was 11.34mg/100g while ‘inyang-afia’ had 13.24mg/100g, ‘inyang-afia’ had the higher content of Mg while ‘inyang-afia’ had the least value of 0.05mg/100g. Beta-carotene content in ‘mmeme’ and ‘inyang-afia’ were (0.21ug/100g and 0.35ug/100g) respectively and Vitamin C while ‘mmeme’ had the highest vitamin A content of 2.23ug/100g. For the anti-nutrient, oxalate in ’mmeme’ had 221.0mg/100g while ‘inyang-afia’ was 136.550mg/100g while tannin in ‘mmeme’ 0.31mg/100g had the least anti-nutrient 0.04mg/100g respectively. However the result showed that after heat treatment (blanching), the anti-nutrient drastically reduced. Sensory properties of appearance, flavor, taste, aroma, mouth-feel (texture) and general acceptability were evaluated on pottage yam prepared with both ‘mmeme’ and ‘inyang-afia’. Therefore, yam pottage prepared with ‘mmeme’ leaf (6.96) for aroma and (6.72) for appearance were significantly different (P<0.05) from pottage prepared with ‘inyang-afia’ leaf pottage (6.42) for aroma and (6.54) for appearance respectively while the control (inyang-afia) leaf had the least mean (6.18) acceptability score. Therefore after the analysis, ‘mmeme’ leaf which was an underutilized vegetable has been proven to contain the basic nutritive qualities with an increased amount of therapeutic properties with this, inclusion of ‘mmeme’ vegetable in our daily diet by all age groups as confirmed and cultivating it in agricultural sectors will not only enhance our monotonous vegetable status but also boost our nutrient profile and vegetable diversification bearing in mind that it is available in all season to improve our daily micronutrient intake compared to other conventional leaves.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title page i
Certification ii
Dedication iii
Acknowledgement iv-viii
Table of contents x
List of tables xi
List of figures xii
Abstract xiii
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background 1
1.2 Statement of Problem 3
1.3 Objective of the Study 5
1.3.1 General Objective 5
1.3.2 Specific Objectives 5
1.5 Significant of the Study 5
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Green leafy Vegetable ‘Mmeme’ (Asystasia gangetica) 6
2.1.1 Cultivation, Harvesting, processing and utilization of
‘Mmeme’ (Asystasia gangetica) 7
2.2 Green leafy Vegetable ‘Inyang-afia’ (Amaranthus hybridus) 9
2.2.1 Harvesting, processing and utilization of (Amaranthus hybridus) 9
2.4 Nutritional Composition of Green Leafy Vegetables 10
2.5 Therapeutic Advantage of Green Leafy Vegetables 11
2.6 Assessment and Sensory Evaluation of Food 14
2.6.1 Types of test during sensory evaluation of food 15
2.6.2 Panelist 15
2.7 Allergic Reaction in Green Leafy Vegetables 17
2.7.1 Food allergy and symptoms 17
2.8 Socio-economic and Technical Issues of Green Leafy Vegetables 19
2.8.1 Trade and global trends 9
2.8.2 Traditional consumption 20
2.8.3 Economic and social impact 21
2.4.4 Commercial constraints 21
CHAPTER 3: MATERIAL AND METHODS
3.1 Preliminary Studies on Samples 23
3.1.1 Selection of respondents 23
3.2 Preparation and Treatment of Samples 24
3.4 Laboratory Analysis 27
3.5 Proximate 27
3.5.1 Moisture content determination 29
3.5.2 Ash content determination 28
3.5.3 Protein content determination 28
3.5.4 Fat content determination 29
3.5.5 Carbohydrate content determination 30
3.5.6 Crude fiber determination 30
3.5.7 Energy value determination 31
3.6 Determination of Macro & Micro Elements 31
3.6.1 Sodium 31
3.6.1 Potassium 32
3.6.2 Phosphorus 32
3.6.3 Iron and Zinc determination 33
3.6.4 Calcium 33
3.6.4 Magnesium 33
3.7 Vitamin Analysis 34
3.7.1 Vitamin A 34
3.7.2 Vitamin C 35
3.8 Determination of Anti-nutritional Factors 35
3.8.1 Phytate determination 35
3.8.2 Tannin determination 36
3.8.3 Oxalate determination 36
3.8.4 Preparatory method 39
3.9 Sensory Evaluation 40
3.9.1 Instrument 40
3.9.2 Evaluation of session 41
3.10 Statistical Analysis 42
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
4.1 Background of the Respondents 43
4.2 Awareness of the Respondents about “Mmeme Vegetable 45
4.3 Utilization of Vegetable by Respondents 47
4.4 Problems Associated with the Vegetable 50
4.5 Energy and Proximate Compositions of the Vegetables 51
4.6 Mineral Content of ‘Mmeme’ and ‘Inyang-afia’ Vegetables. 55
4.7 Beta-carotene Vitamin C Contents in the Vegetables 59
4.8 Anti-nutritional Factors in ‘Mmeme’ and ‘Inyang-afia’ Vegetables 61
4.9 Sensory Characteristics of ‘Mmeme’ and ‘Inyang-afia’ Vegetables 64
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION
5.1 Conclusion 67
5.2 Recommendations 67
References
Appendices
LIST OF TABLES
2.3.1 Nomenclatures of the two vegetable samples used 10
4.1 Socio economic characteristics of the respondents 44
4.2 Awareness of the respondents by respondents 46
4.3 Utilization of vegetable by the respondents 48
4.4 Problems associated with the vegetable 50
4.5 Proximate composition of ‘mmeme’ and ‘inyang-afia’ vegetables 52
4.6 Mineral contents of ‘mmeme’ and inyang-afia’ vegetable 56
4.7 Vitamin C and beta-carotene contents in ‘mmeme’ and ‘inyang-afia’ vegetable 59
4.8 Anti-nutritional factor in ‘mmeme’ and ‘inyang-afia’ vegetable 62
4.9 Sensory characteristic of ‘mmeme’ and ‘inyang-afia’ vegetable. 66
LIST OF FIGURES
3.1 Fresh underutilized green leafy vegetables 24
3.3 Flow chart for analyzing procedure for the two vegetables ‘Mmeme’ (Asystasia gangetica) and Inyang-afia’ (Amaranthus hybridus) vegetables 26
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND
In the developed and developing countries like tropical Africa, green leafy vegetables are generally known to add flavor, variety of taste, color and aesthetic appeal to what would otherwise have been known to be a monotonous diet (Ladeji et al., 1995). They are also known to occupy an important place among the food crops as they provide adequate amounts of essential nutrients for human survival such as B-carotene, ascorbic acid, riboflavin, folic acid, calcium, iron, potassium and phosphorous (UNFAO, 2001). In nature, there are many underutilized green leafy vegetables with abundant nutritive values which can nourish the ever increasing population, but most of them remain underutilized due to lack of awareness, taboos and poor popularization of technologies. Malnutrition is often linked to economic deprivation, poverty, low standard of living, inadequate food habit, ignorance, unavailability of micronutrient rich foods and little or no protein sources (Agarwel et al., 1992). The result of Institute of International and Tropical Agriculture (IITA) and Nigeria Food Consumption and Nutrient Survey (IITA and NFCNS) (2004) showed that many Nigerian children are stunted, underweight and wasted despite high advances in agriculture research and food production programmes which lead to visible signs of malnutrition and other signs which are less obvious generally resulted from ‘‘hidden hunger’’ (micronutrient deficiencies) (IITA-NFCNS, 2004).
The IITA-NFCNS (2004), survey further showed that about three in every ten children in Nigeria are deficient in vitamin A and iodine and about four of every ten children are deficient in iron. It was also observed that13%, 35%, 24% and 28% of their mothers are suffering from vitamin A, E, iron and iodine deficiencies respectively. Consequently, larger segment of Nigerians cultivate cash crops with little or no vegetables where greater percentages are sold for income generation while living with poor health status (Harborne et al., 1999). Moreso, nutrition education programme can then be monitored to disseminate information in other to sensitize the community to increase the cultivation as well as adequate consumption of green leafy vegetables. In this era, many local vegetables are made up of indigenous species which have been incorporated into family diets to augment the low level of protein and vitamins as well as mineral sources in other to eliminate high prevalence of micronutrients and nutritional deficiencies especially protein energy malnutrition (PEM) which is considered a public health problem especially in developing countries (Hedges and Lister, 2005).
Leafy vegetables also constitute an indispensable constituent in human diet though they are fair sources of protein but perfect sources of pro-vitamin A, vitamin C, folic acid and appreciable amount of minerals like iron, magnesium, calcium (Akhigbe, 1987). They are low in fat, no cholesterol, excellent supplements for poor cereal diet with perfect fiber content which prevent constipation due to vegetable potential properties and values (Afam-Anene, 2003).For example Gratissium (‘Nchaunwu’) can be used in the treatment of stomach upset and convulsion in children while Piper guineense (‘Uziza’) serves as a flavoring agent in the preparation of some traditional dishes (Afam-Anene, 2003). Other vegetable spices and flavorings include curry, thyme and tumeric which are mainly cultivated from their pods, roots, tubers and fruits. Since high percentage of Nigeria’s vulnerable groups require adequate consumption of green leafy vegetables, proper diversity in traditional vegetables should be encouraged in other to enhance food varieties in the family diet and thereby ensuring quality nutrition and food security.
1.2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM
Green leafy vegetables generally are known to be power-house stored with essential nutrient qualities and potential properties (Ineke et al., 2007). Developed and developing countries like tropical Africa and Nigeria depend on starchy-foods as their daily meals for the supply of essential nutrients and high consumption of only this starchy-foods accounts for some nutritional deficiencies which are prevalent among the populace as recognized by Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) (Ladeji et al., 1995). In these countries where their daily diets are dominated by starchy staple foods, they happen to consume fewer amounts of leafy vegetables that remain the cheapest sources of protein, mineral, vitamins and essential amino acids (Okafor, 1983).
Most of the indigenous and traditional leafy vegetables are underutilized due to ignorance and inadequate scientific knowledge of their nutritional potentials. Although, research from Lockeett et al. (2000), had previously reported on the composition, evaluation and functional properties of various types of edible vegetables used in the developing countries, more research needs to be done in other to increase the creeping source of quality nutrients when the most utilized ones are out of reach and season (Abaire, 2011). An example is one of our indigenous green leafy vegetable (Asystasia gangetica) ‘mmeme’ which would have increased and enhanced the digestibility and bioavailability of nutrients and would have also contributed effectively to dietary requirements and management of nutritional related diseases, which have been known to be under-exploited (Lee,1997).The reason for underutilization today could be due to some cultures or taboos which had placed negative effects on adequate consumption of this vegetable.
There are taboos like: male children, after birth should be given this vegetable for a period of 0-2months in life to prevent impotency during adulthood; pregnant women are to eat other vegetables except A. gangetica for about 1-8months in order to reduce Low Birth Weight (LBW); lactating mothers should drink other vegetable juice twice daily during the first 6-months after birth except A. gangetica to prevent their infants from the risk of child-hood diseases (Mandu and Imabong, 2009).
Therefore, since taboos, lack of awareness and poor popularization of technologies affect adequate consumption of this green leafy vegetable which may result in deficiency of essential nutrients, there is need to identify and analyze this underutilized vegetable in other to eliminate the taboos affecting its consumption. This could be done through the chemical and sensory evaluation of ‘mmeme’ (Asystasia gangetica) vegetable and ‘inyang-afia’ (Amaranthus hybridus) which is mostly utilized by use of objective and subjective evaluations (Ahinnor and Oze, 2011). These evaluations will help to promote, encourage and ascertain daily consumption of this indigenous vegetable in order to serve as another rich vegetable in our regular diet and food supplement thereby boosting the overall nutrient profile of indigenous vegetables (Keiwand Vollesen, 1997). Bosser (2000) also reported that now-a-days, underutilized foods are gaining importance in the society as a means to increase availability of food banks. This study therefore, explored the chemical and sensory evaluation of these vegetables especially A. gangetica which is underutilized and thus encourages its use in food diversification which will further help to handle food and nutrition insecurity.
1.3 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
1.3.1 General Objective of the study.
The general objective of this study was to determine the chemical and sensory evaluation of ‘mmeme’ (Asystasia gangetica) vegetable and ‘inyang-afia’ (Amaranthus hybridus).
1.3.2 Specific Objectives of the study.
The specific objectives are to:
1. assess the level of utilization of ‘memme’ (Asystasia gangetica) vegetable in the households using a questionnaire.
2. determine the proximate, vitamins(A, C) and minerals (K, Ph, Ca, Fe, Mg, Mn, Na, and Zn) composition of these vegetables.
3. assess some anti-nutrients content (phytate, oxalate and tannin factors) of the vegetables.
4. determine the acceptability of the vegetables using sensory evaluation.
1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
This research study will encourage the adequate consumption of this indigenous underutilized green vegetable. The information from this study will further make this vegetable to be seen as one of the major food supplements to be used especially during emergency situations as well as remedying the problem of food and nutrition insecurity. Information from this research will be useful and to the pharmaceutical industries, public health professionals and nutritionist/dieticians during seminars or any nutrition awareness exercise for diet modifications and management of nutrition related diseases that are prevalent in society.
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