ABSTRACT
The use of Moringa oleifera and Inga eduli on treatment of domestic water supply sources in Ishiagu area was assessed. The water sources were Ivo river, well, spring, borehole and the abandoned mining pits of heavy metal and quarry. Physicochemical and microbiological analyses were carried out. Coagulant dosages of 0.5 g, 1.0 g and 1.5 g were used in 100ml of the water samples for 1 hour, 3 hours and 6 hours time intervals. From the physicochemical parameters before the treatment, the water samples showed that values of TSS ranged from 19.0 in spring water to 79.7 mg/l in Ivo river, TDS (19.8-435 mg/l), conductivity (425-750 µS/cm), turbidity (2.50-4.30 NTU) and total hardness ranged from 202 to 590 mg/l. Other parameters were NO3 (0.31-1.68 mg/l), SO4 (11.3-21.4 mg/l) and PO4 (0.12-3.45 mg/l). The DO values were 3.7-5.2 mg/l and BOD (2.6-6.3 mg/l). Values obtained from the mining pit water were similar and higher while those from borehole, spring and well were low and similar (P
0.05). The values of the metallic ions were low in the spring, borehole and well water but high in the abandoned mining pit water of heavy metal and quarry. Treatment with Moringa oleifera, Inga edulis, and alum at 1, 3, and 6 hours indicated significant (P0.05) reduction in all the physicochemical parameters and microbial groups analysed, except for pH and temperature which remained fairly constant. Reductions in the values of the physicochemical parameters were dependent on treatment time and coagulant dosage (P0.05). The values of Al increased non significantly when 1.5 g dose of alum was used. Pb and Zn were only reduced to the upper limits of acceptable standards in the mining pits water samples. The microbial groups examined were total heterotrophic bacterial count (THBC), total coliform count (TCC) and total fecal coliform count (TFCC). Ivo river had a reduction in THBC from 3.1x106 before treatment to 1.0x106 after treatment with Moringa oleifera, 2.2x106 after treatment with I. edulis and 1.0x106 after treatment with alum. The highest microbial group in each water sample was the THBC, followed by TCC and then TFCC; and they had the highest counts in the river, followed by the abandoned pits, well, borehole and spring. Alum and M. oleifera removed TFCC from spring, borehole, well and Ivo river water samples at 1.0g and 1.5g doses for 3 and 6 hours respectively, although alum was more effective. The treatment with I. edulis was effective at 1.0 g and 1.5 g at 6 hrs. The efficiency of the coagulants on the microbial population were both time and dose dependent. The phytochemical analysis of the plants showed that both plants had similar compositions though in varying concentrations. Efficiency of the coagulants was in the order of Alum > Moringa oleifera > Inga edulis. Due to the adverse health effect that can result when alum is used for domestic water purification, Moringa oleifera should be considered first before Inga edulis as a domestic water coagulating or purifying agent.
TABLE OF
CONTENTS
Title
Page i
Declaration ii
Certification iii
Dedication iv
Acknowledgements v
Table
of Contents vi
List
of Tables ix
List
of Figures xi
List of Plates xiii
Abstract xiv
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Statement of the Research
Problem 4
1.2 Significance of Study 5
1.3 Aim 5
1.4 Specific Objectives 5
CHAPTER
2:
LITERATURE REVIEW 7
2.1 History of Biocoagulants 8
2.2 Moringa oleifera 9
2.3 Inga
edulis 11
2.4 Alum 15
2.5 Coagulation
Efficiency 16
2.5.1 Jar test
16
2.6 Factors
affecting Biocoagulation 17
2.7 Importance
of Biocoagulants 20
2.8 Limitations
of Biocoagulants 22
CHAPTER 3: MATERIALS AND METHODS 23
3.1 Study Area 23
3.2 Sample Collection 23
3.3 Test Coagulants 24
3.4 Determination of the Phytochemical Compositions of
the Various
Plant
Biocoagulants 24
3.4.1 Test for tannins 24
3.4.2 Test for saponins 25
3.4.3
Test for flavonoids 25
3.4.4 Test for glycosides 25
3.4.5
Test for alkaloids 25
3.5 Water Treatment Tests - Using Jar
Test Method 26
3.5.1
Preparation of the plants’ seeds 26
3.5.2
Preparation of the alum used 26
3.5.3
Jar test operations 26
3.6 Determination
of the Physicochemical Properties of the Various Water
Sources in
the Area (Ivo River, Well Water, Spring, Borehole Water,
Quarry
Pit and Heavy Metal Mining Pit Water). 25
3.6.1 Determination of pH 27
3.6.2 Determination of temperature 27
3.6.3 Determination of turbidity 28
3.6.4 Determination of total suspended solid 28
3.6.5 Determination of total dissolved solids 28
3.6.6 Dissolved oxygen (DO) 29
3.6.7 Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) 29
3.6.8 Electrical conductivity determination 30
3.6.9 Determination of sulphate 30
3.6.10 Determination of phosphate 31
3.6.11 Determination of nitrate 31
3.7 Determination
of Heavy Metals in the Water Samples 31
3.8
Microbial Analyses of the
Various Water Sources Samples Collected
in
the Study Area. 32
3.8.1 Enumeration of total heterotrophic bacterial
count from samples 33
3.8.2 Enumeration of total coliform count 34
3.8.3 Enumeration of total fecal coliform count 34
3.9 Determination
of the Impact of the Coagulants on the Microbial Profile
and
Physicochemical Properties of the Different Samples of the
Water
Sources 35
3.10 Data Analysis 35
CHAPTER
4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 36
4.1 Results 36
4.2 Discussion 117
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION AND
RECOMMENDATION 135
5.1 Conclusion 135
5.2 Recommendation 135
References
Appendices
LIST OF
TABLES
4.1: Physiological
microbial groups assessed from the various water samples
before treatment
with coagulants 41
4.2: Physiological microbial groups assessed from the
well water sample after
treatment with Moringa
oleifera 89
4.3: Physiological microbial groups
assessed from the well water sample after
treatment
with Inga edulis 91
4.4: Physiological microbial groups
assessed from the well water sample after
treatment
with alum 93
4.5: Physiological microbial groups
assessed from the Ivo R water sample
after treatment with Moringa oleifera 95
4.6: Physiological microbial groups
assessed from the Ivo R water sample
after treatment with Inga edulis 97
4.7 Physiological microbial
groups assessed from the Ivo R. water sample
after treatment
with alum 99
4.8 Physiological microbial
groups assessed from the spring water sample
after treatment with Moringa oleifera 101
4.9 Physiological
microbial groups assessed from the spring water sample
after
treatment with Inga edulis 102
4.10 Physiological microbial
groups assessed from the spring water sample
after
treatment with alum 103
4.11 Physiological
microbial groups assessed from the borehole water sample
after
treatment with Moringa oleifera 105
4.12: Physiological
microbial groups assessed from the borehole water
sample
after treatment with Inga edulis 106
4.13 Physiological
microbial groups assessed from the borehole water sample
after
treatment with alum 107
4.14 Physiological microbial groups assessed
from the quarry pit water
sample after treatment with Moringa oleifera 109
4.15 Physiological microbial groups assessed
from the quarry pit water 110
sample
after treatment with Inga edulis
4.16 Physiological
microbial groups assessed from the quarry pit water sample
after treatment with alum 111
4.17 Physiological
microbial groups assessed from the heavy metal water
sample
after treatment with Moringa oleifera
114
4.18 Physiological
microbial groups assessed from the heavy metal water sample
after treatment
with Inga edulis 115
4.19 Physiological
microbial groups assessed from the heavy metal water
sample
after treatment with alum 116
LIST
OF FIGURES
4.1 Physicochemical parameters of
the various water samples 39
before treatment
4.2 Phytochemical properties of Moringa oleifera and Inga edulis seed 43
4.3 Physicochemical
properties of Ivo river water sample before and
after treatment using Moringa oleifera at
different concentrations and time
46
4.4 Physicochemical properties of Ivo river
water sample before and
after treatment using Inga edulis at different concentrations
and time 49
4.5 Physicochemical properties of Ivo river
water sample before and after treatment using alum at different concentrations and time 52
4.6 Physicochemical properties of spring
river water sample before
and after treatment using Moringa oleifera at different
concentrations
and time. 55
4.7 Physicochemical properties of spring
river water sample before and after treatment using Inga edulis at different concentrations and time 57
4.8 Physicochemical properties of spring
river water sample before
and after treatment using alum at
different concentrations and time 59
4.9 Physicochemical properties of
borehole water sample before and after treatment using Moringa oleifera at different
concentrations
and time. 62
4.10 Physicochemical properties of borehole
water sample before and after
treatment using Inga edulis at
different concentrations and time. 64
4.11
Physicochemical properties of borehole
water sample before and after treatment using alum at different
concentrations and time 67
4.12
Physicochemical properties of well
water sample before and after
treatment using Moringa oleifera at different
concentrations and time 69
4.13 Physicochemical properties of well water
sample before and after
Treatment using Inga edulis
at different concentrations and time 71
4.14
Physicochemical properties of well
water sample before and after
treatment using alum at
different concentrations and time 73
4.15 Physicochemical properties of quarry pit
water sample before and
after treatment using Moringa oleifera at different concentrations and
time. 75
4.16 Physicochemical properties of quarry pit
water sample before
and after treatment using Inga edulis at different concentrations
and time 77
4.17 Physicochemical properties of quarry pit
water sample before
and after treatment using alum at
different concentrations and time. 79
4.18.
Physicochemical properties of heavy
metal pit water sample before
and after treatment using Moringa oleifera at different
concentrations
and time. 82
4.19
Physicochemical properties of heavy
metal pit water sample before and
after treatment using Inga edulis at different concentrations
and time. 85
4.20
Physicochemical properties of heavy
metal pit water sample before and
after treatment using
alum at different concentrations and time 87
LIST
OF PLATES
1a: The matured and dried pods and Moringa oleifera hanging
on its 13
1b: The
shelled and deshelled seeds of Moringa oleifera. 13
1a: The pod and fleshy part of the Inga edulis or
Ice cream bean
commonly called Akpioko in Ishiagu. 13
1b: The
dried seed of Inda edulis seed. 13
CHAPTER
1
INTRODUCTION
Water is one of the most important
substances required in life. Any addition of substances into it leads to its
contamination and makes it unfit for human use (Alo et al., 2012). Its uses include domestic, industrial, agricultural,
transportation, recreational, and aesthetic purposes. Domestic water is processed to be safely
consumed as drinking water and to be used for other purposes. Contaminants in
water can affect the water quality and consequently human health. Consumption
of unsafe water results in many deaths especially children and
immune-compromised adults. Such water is either contaminated with pathogenic
microorganisms or contains various chemical components inimical to human health
(WHO, 2004).
Clean or potable water is very
essential to human existence, and the unavailability of potable water is the
predominant reason for most deaths and diseases. According to Center for Disease Control (CDC,
2015), the quality of water
affects the water usage and can be a health concern. Water-related and
waterborne diseases are responsible for about 80% of diseases in the world.
Parameters such as pH, turbidity, conductivity, Total Suspended Solids, Total
Dissolved Solids, colour, odour, coliform count, nutrients and heavy metals among others can
affect water quality, if their values are in higher concentrations than the
safe limits set by the WHO and other regulatory bodies (Renuka et al., 2013).
Water pollution
occurs when pollutants like heavy metals and obnoxious substances are
discharged directly or indirectly into the water bodies. The presence of heavy
metals especially Pb, Cd, Cr, Fe and Zn cause adverse effects in humans.
According
to Rao et al. (2015), some of these heavy metals occur in the environment
naturally at different concentrations while others enter the ecosystem through
anthropogenic means, especially mining and metal works. When the mining
activities are carried out through the open cast method, the ores and wastes
are exposed to leaching which sends these metals into the environment.
including soil and water bodies, around the mine sites. According to Okegye and Gajere
(2015), in most mining area, surface water and groundwater are usually
contaminated or polluted by heavy metals. Sources of the heavy metals in waters
are either natural or anthropogenic. Mining and smelting plants are the main
anthropogenic sources of heavy metal contamination in any mining area. The heavy metal contamination are important
due to their potential to be toxic for human being and the environment. Some of
the heavy metals such as Ca, Fe, Ni and Zn are essential micro
nutrients
for animals and plants but are dangerous at high levels, whereas Cd, Cr and Pb
have no known physiological functions but are detrimental at certain limits.
Furthermore, Cr and Cd are carcinogenic, while Pb may cause neurological
impairment and central nervous system malfunctioning (WHO, 2004). Once the mining activity stops, groundwater
accumulates in the pits. The quality of the accumulated water in the pits is
therefore a clear indication of the groundwater quality in the mining
community. Once the pits examined had been decommissioned, the community around
may have assumed that water accumulated in these pits is safe for use. In man’s
efforts to provide potable water for domestic uses, and before distribution for
consumption, several purification methods have been adopted. These include direct filtration, chemical
treatment and sometimes biological approach. Waste water treatment
techniques that are widely used are chemical precipitation, lime coagulation,
ion exchange, reverse osmosis and solvent extraction (Azizul,
2014). Some of these methods are
not only expensive, specialized and requiring special training and techniques,
but also introduce other components which are equally inimical to health, e.g.
the use of alum in water treatment (WHO, 2004).
This therefore calls for cheap, easy to operate and cost effective
approaches to water purification methods especially in our rural and semi urban
communities (Subramanium
et al., 2011). In these processes, coagulants play very
vital roles in the reduction of water turbidity and removal of other
contaminants.
Water coagulation is a process of
precipitating particles in the water to form aggregates which settle out of the
water to the bottom of the container.
Among the available methods of
water treatment, coagulation and flocculation (CF) is a low cost, simple,
reliable, and low energy consuming process that is commonly practiced. This is because it requires no exclusive or
complex machines; also no energy consumption is required for the operation,
once an effective coagulant is obtained.
It is an established process that effectively removes soluble,
colloidal, and suspended particles through induced aggregation of both micro
and macro particulates into larger-sized ones followed by sedimentation
(Pardede et al., 2018).
Some
plant based natural coagulants that have been studied include Moringa
oleifera, Stryconus potatorum, Cactus species, Phaseolus
vulgaris, surjana seed, maize seed, tannin, gum arabic, Prosopis
juliflora and Ipomoea dasysperma seed gum, Maerua subcordata, Opuntia spp., Cicer arietinum, Dolichos lablab, (Chethana et
al., 2015; Edogbanya
et al., 2013; Nwaugo et al., 2006). Artificial or
chemical
coagulants include ferric sulphate, ferrous sulphate, ferric chloride, aluminum
sulphate (alum), aluminum chloride, sodium aluminate, hydrated lime and
magnesium carbonate (Chethana et al., 2014). However, in most cases, it has
been found to pose some health, economic and environmental problems.
The sludge
produced from this process is voluminous and non biodegradable after treatment
leading to increase in cost of treatment (Subramanium et al., 2011; Yahya et al.,
2011, Muyibi, 2005).
Alum (aluminium sulphate), has been
the most widely used chemical coagulant for the treatment of water. Aluminum
can be obtained in solid, ground and/or in solution form. It has been found to pose some health,
economic and environmental problems on usage, among which are neurological
diseases such as percentile dementia and induction of Alzheimer’s disease
(Ugwu, 2017).
Moringa
oleifera commonly
known as miracle tree or drumstick and Inga
edulis commonly known as Guamba, Ice cream bean or Monkey Tamarind, are
tropical plants. Moringa oleifera
belongs to the family of Moringaceae, while, Inga edulis belongs to the family Fabaceae. These plants serve both
nutritional and medicinal purposes. The seeds are rich in natural antioxidants,
therefore are useful to man (Mohammed and
Manan, 2015). The advantages of using these biocoagulants include positive
cost-effectiveness, water treated without extreme pH, and a high level of
biodegradability of sludge generated (Dehghani and Alizadeh, 2016).
Some of the domestic water sources
in Ishiagu include boreholes, wells, springs and the several rivers that criss cross the area. The
water in the abandoned mine pits (heavy metal mining pits and quarry pits) are
used by the people when they are out for farming and some time when they are at
the work sites. The surface water consumed in the area is cloudy and have
particulate matter. The means of purification of this water before consumption
is not readily available; which portends hazards to the health of the
population. The possibility of purification using locally available bio
coagulants
will reduce diseases and deaths related to water and impact positively on the
economy.
1.1 STATEMENT OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM
In Nigeria,
as in other developing nations, the availability of potable water is a serious
issue. Several cases of mortality and morbidity have been encountered due to
usage of unsafe water. Consumption of unsafe water is wide spread especially in
semi-rural communities and rural settlements. Surface water and ground water
that are brownish, cloudy and may have particulate matter are regularly
consumed in Ishiagu, Southeastern Nigeria.
There is no readily available means of purification of this water, hence
most people are forced to consume the water without treatment, and this
portends health hazards to the consuming population.
1.2 SIGNIFICANCE
OF STUDY
The
possibility of making potable water available through cheap and easy to execute
purification process will reduce death and morbidity associated with
consumption of unsafe water in the area. This will directly improve the health
status of the community and impact positively on productivity and the economy
of the people. Also the recognition of the potentials of the plants would
encourage cultivation of the plants which will also serve as source of revenue
for the community.
1.3 AIM AND OBJECTIVES
This study
was to assess the use of Moringa oleifera
and Inga edulis on treatment of
domestic water supply sources in Ishiagu.
1.4 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
To achieve
the aim, some specific objectives were targeted. These include:
1
Determination of the
physicochemical properties of the domestic
water supply sources in the study area
(Ivo River, Well water, spring water, Borehole water, abandoned heavy metal pit
water and abandoned mine pit water).
2
Determination of the
microbial profile of the various water sources in the study area.
3
Determination of the
phytochemical compositions of the two biocoagulants.
4
Determination
of the impact of the biocoagulants on the physicochemical properties of the
various water sources in the area.
5
Determination
of the impact of the biocoagulants of the microbial profile of the various
water sources in the area.
6
Determination
of the effects of coagulant concentrations and time on the water quality.
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