TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Background to the Study
Statement
of the problems
Research Questions
Research Hypotheses
Purpose of the Study
Significance of the Study
Operational
Definitions of Terms
Scope of
the Study
CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF THE RELATED
LITERATURE
Concept of
Violence
Concept of
Domestic Violence
Predictors of Domestic Violence among Married Adults
Empirical Review of Studies on Domestic Violence and
Predictors of Domestic
Violence
Summary of Review of the Related Literature
CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
Research
Design
Population, Sample and Sampling
Procedure
Instrumentation
Psychometric
Properties of Instrument
Procedure
of Data Collection and Administration
Procedure
for Scoring
Method of
Data Analysis
CHAPTER
FOUR
RESULTS
Demographic
Data
Hypotheses Testing
CHAPTER FIVE
DISCUSSION,
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Conclusion
Implications for Counselling Practice
Recommendations
Suggestions for Further Studies
REFERENCES
APPENDIX
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Background to the Study
According
to the World Health Report on Violence and Health (2009), domestic violence
refers to any behaviour within an intimate relationship that causes physical,
psychological or sexual harm to those in the relationship (Bernama, 2017).
Domestic violence can take a variety of forms including physical assault such
as hitting, slapping, kicking and beatings; psychological abuse, such as
constant belittling, intimidation, and humiliation; and coercive sex. It
frequently includes controlling behaviours such as isolating a woman from
family and friends, monitoring her movements, and restricting her access to
resources (Bernama, 2017).
Alhabib,
Nur and Jones (2010) defines domestic violence as a threat or physical,
psychological and / or emotionally violent act; that is, any kind of violence
against others with the intention of injuring or demonstrating power and
exercising control over them (Flury, Nyberg, & Riecher-Rössler, 2010). The
United Nations defines violence against women as "any act of gender-based
violence that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual or mental
harm or suffering to women, including threats of such acts, coercion or
arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or in private
life" (Women’s Aids Organisation, 2017).
Marcus
and Braaf (2007) defined domestic violence as a pattern of coercive tactics
that can include physical, psychological, sexual, economic, and emotional
abuse, perpetrated by one person against an intimate partners, with the goal of
establishing and maintaining power and control. Domestic Violence occurs in all
kinds of intimate relationships, including among married couples, people who
are dating, couples who live together, people with children in common, same-sex
partners, people who were formerly in a relationship with the person abusing
them, and teen dating relationships. Laing and Bobic (2002) stated that
domestic violence is control by one partner over another in a dating, marital
or live-in relationship. The means of control include physical, sexual,
emotional and economic abuse, threats and isolation. Domestic violence occurs
in adult or adolescent intimate relationships where the perpetrator and the
victim are currently or have been previously dating, cohabiting, married or
divorced. They may be heterosexual, gay, or lesbian. They may have children in
common or not. The relationships may be of a long or short duration (Kishor
& Johnson, 2004).
Some
recent researchers (Chang, Lin, & Liu, 2017) stated that domestic violence
includes physical, mental or economic harassment, control, threats, or other
illegal attacks; and these violent acts are imposed on family members i.e.
intimate partner, children, youth and the elderly. The types of domestic
violence include physical, psychological, sexual, economic or financial and
spiritual (Women’s Aids Organisation, 2017). Its impact stretches beyond those
women who are the victims of violence themselves, since it also affects
families, friends and society as a whole. It causes a myriad of physical and
mental health issues and in some cases results in loss of life.
Domestic
violence has in the last few decades become a public health issue of immense
significance all over the world. Such violence has been associated with serious
health consequences including physical, sexual and reproductive health,
psychological and behavioural problems, as well as fatal health outcomes such
as homicide, suicide, and maternal mortality. (Campbell, 2002; Bonomi,
Anderson, Rivara & Thompson, 2007).
Aihie
(2009) identified various forms of domestic violence to include physical abuse,
sexual abuse, neglect, economic abuse, emotional abuse and spiritual abuse.
Alcohol consumption and mental illness can be co-morbid with abuse and present
additional challenges in eliminating domestic violence (Markowitz, 2000). Prevalence,
awareness, perception, definition and documentation of domestic violence differ
widely from country to country, and have evolved from era to era.
Population-based
studies from various countries indicate that between 10% and 75% of women
report that an intimate partner has physically abused them at least once in
their lifetime. The lowest figures of 10% were reported in Paraguay and
Philippines while the highest prevalence rates were recorded in Bangladesh
(Bonomi, 2002; Garcia-Moreno, Jansen, Ellsberg, Heise & Watts 2006). Overall,
at least 1 in 3 of the world’s female population has been physically or
sexually abused by a man or men at some time in their life (Silverman, Gupta,
Decker, Kapur, & Raj, 2007). Research has shown that physical abuse is
often associated with psychological or emotional, and sexual abuse (Heise,
Ellsberg & Gottmoeller, 2002)
In
Malaysia, the statistics of domestic violence occurrences against women
continues to rise in a concerning and in ever increasing number. A total of 57,
519 cases of violence against women were reported since 2010 to 2016, which
include 23,212 cases (40%) of domestic violence involving women as victims
while 28,365 cases involving child abuse (Bernama, 2017). In view of this
alarming statistics, the issues of domestic violence against women is starting
to get substantial attention not only from the authority and Non-Governmental
bodies, but also from academicians (García-moreno, Claudia, et al, 2005). Past
researches have shown that the predisposition factors (e.g., substance abuse,
exposure to parental violence, gender ideologies etc.) are positively related
to domestic violence against women and victim factors (e.g., possession of
resources, witnessed violence experience, personality integration, positive attitude
toward violent behaviour etc.). In further support to that, a number of past
researches (e.g. Reingle, Staras, Jennings, Branchini, & Maldonado-molina,
2013) have also found that victim factors and perpetrator factors are
positively correlated.
Laws
on domestic violence vary by country. While it is generally outlawed in the
Western World, this is not the case in many developing countries. For instance,
in 2010, the United Arab Emirates' Supreme Court ruled that a man has the right
to physically discipline his wife and children as long as he does not leave
physical marks. The social acceptability of domestic violence also differs by
country. While in most developed countries domestic violence is considered
unacceptable by most people, in many regions of the world the views are
different (UNICEF, 2000).
According
to a UNICEF (2000) survey, the percentage of women aged 15–49 who think that a
husband is justified in hitting or beating his wife under certain circumstances
is, for example: 90% in Afghanistan and Jordan, 87% in Mali, 86% in Guinea and
Timor-Leste, 81% in Laos, 80% in Central African Republic. Refusing to submit
to a husband's wishes is a common reason given for justification of violence in
developing countries: for instance 62.4% of women in Tajikistan justify wife
beating if the wife goes out without telling the husband; 68% if she argues
with him; 47.9% if she refuses to have sex with him (Clarke, 2013). 80% of
women surveyed in rural Egypt said that beatings were common and often justified,
particularly if the woman refused to have sex with her husband (UNFPA, 2005).
Various
predictors of domestic violence have been extensively reported in literature.
In broad terms, they can be classified as, drug abuse, socio-economic status, individual
behaviour, partner attitude to marriage and societal characteristics to mention
but a few. At the level of the individual (victim), it has been reported that
young women and those below the poverty line are disproportionately affected
(Ellsberg, Pena, Herrera, Liljestrand & Winkvist, 2000). Low socioeconomic
status has also been identified as a predictor of domestic violence (Cunradi,
Caetano & Schafer, 2002). Women who contribute a greater proportion to the
family income have been identified to be at risk, possibly because the woman’s
economic power questions the man’s role as provider (Ellsberg, et al, 2000).
On
the part of the drug abuse as a predictor of domestic violence, men or women who
abused alcohol and other psychoactive substances were more likely than those
who did not abuse alcohol to perpetrate domestic violence (Stickley, Timofeeva
& Sparen, 2008). Witnessing parental violence or being a victim of physical
violence as a child has also been associated with men who perpetrate domestic violence.
Also, women who were exposed to childhood violence and witnessed domestic
violence are at higher risk of being victims.11 At the level of the couple,
dysfunctional, unhealthy relationships characterized by inequality, power
imbalance and conflict can lead to domestic violence (Clark, Silverman,
Shahrouri, Everson-Rose & Groce, 2010).
Domestic
violence is reportedly associated with gender inequality as well as social
norms supportive of traditional gender roles, and patriarchal male dominance.
Similarly, the lack of institutional support from police and judicial systems
and weak community sanctions are other factors known to be associated with domestic
violence (Heise, et al., 2002).
Gender
differences in reporting violence have been cited as another explanation for
mixed results (Chan, 2011). According UNFPA (2005), in 2004 survey carried out
in Canada, the percentages of males being physically or sexually victimized by
their partners was 6% versus 7% for women. However, females reported higher levels
of repeated violence and were more likely than men to experience serious
injuries; 23% of females versus 15% of males were faced with the most serious
forms of violence including being beaten, choked, or threatened with or having
a gun or knife used against them. Also, 21% of women versus 11% of men were
likely to report experiencing more than 10 violent incidents.
Around the world, at least one out
of three women is beaten, coerced into sex or otherwise abused during her
lifetime. Most often, the abuser is a member of her own family (WHO, 2004).
UNFPA (2002) reports that more than 60% of women worldwide have been abused. In
48 population-based surveys around the world, 10 to 69% of the women reported
assault by an intimate partner (Krug, et al., 2002).
In addition, the prevalence of violence during pregnancy ranges from 4 to 20%
in developing countries (Nasir, et al., 2003).
Some
sociologists have investigated risk factors and predictors of domestic
violence. These factors include age, sex, socio-economic variables, social
stress, race and ethnicity (Gelles, 2003). Gelles and Cornell (2000) proposed that factors such
as work pressures, unemployment, poverty and poor housing caused frustration
and stresses at the individual level and as a consequence lead to violence in
the family. However, some writers argue that this is a limited view since
violence is not confined to families in the lower socio-economic groups but is
spread across the class spectrum (Browne & Herbert, 2007). Sociologists also
viewed family structure as a social institution that creates a high risk for
violence (Gelles, 2003). Another sociological
explanation of domestic violence is the resource theory proposed by Jasinski (2001). Jasinski (2001) suggested that
violence is a resource used to derive power so that a person lacking of power
will utilize violence (resources) within the relationship. Although
sociological perspectives employ psychological variables, family factors, and
the broader social context as the predictors of domestic violence as a social
issue.
Statement
of the problems
Domestic violence affects men, women and
children. It is a serious problem that transcends racial, economic, social and
religious lines. More so, it affects human health, undermines human dignity and
in the long run become a major drawback to economic development. When families
get involved in domestic violence, a lot of time is spent in settling of
disputes and nursing psychological and physical wounds of violence (Siemieniuk,
Krentz,
Gish & Gill, 2010).
The
impact of domestic violence is far reaching having physical and mental health
implications. Murder represents an extreme consequence of domestic violence
which is not uncommon (Abasiubong, Abasiattai, Bassey & Ogunsemi, 2010). A
major challenge associated with domestic violence is the fact that in some
settings it is still a culturally acceptable practice with many women and men
including children suffering in silence being held back by family secrecy,
cultural norms, shame and fear (Aihie,
2009).
Several researches have been carried out on
domestic violence. For instance Acevedo,
Lowe, Kenneth, Gilbert (2013) conducted a study on predictors of intimate
partner violence in a sample of Multiethnic urban young adults in Brazil. It
was found that lifetime violence-related behaviours, number of lifetime sexual
partners, and number of children were significant risk factors for intimate
partner violence. Igbokwe, Michael and Kelechi (2013) carried out a study on domestic
violence against women in Enugu state and found that verbal abuse (80.95%) and
the physical forms of violence (beating, battering, slapping) (69.05%)
constituted the major forms of domestic abuse. The greatest socio-cultural
factors that promote domestic violence include failure to give the husband a
male child (83.33%) and silence of the women about incidence of domestic
violence (70.95%). It was found that the greatest forms of domestic violence
experienced by women in Nsukka LGA are physical and emotional forms of domestic
violence.
Data
from the United States shows that an estimated 32,101 pregnancies were as a
result of rape each year, the majority of them among adolescents. Fifty percent
of these ended in abortions and 5.9% placed the infant for adoption (Holmes, Resnick, Kilpatrick & Best, 2006). There is also a close relationship between
violence and mental ill health (Elsbergh, Pena,
Herrera, Winkrist & Kullgren,
2009).
According
to National Research Council (2006), domestic violence is responsible for 51.7%
of male deaths and 24.5% of female deaths in United States. However, in women,
death from homicide is known to be associated with a history of domestic
violence. A high proportion of women are killed by people known to them,
particularly partners and ex partners. Many of these deaths may take place
around the time that a woman decides to look for help, or to leave the abuser.
Also in Canada, 5,373 women died as a result of homicide, six out of every ten
of them were murdered by someone they knew; about half were murdered by a
spouse or someone with whom they had been intimate (Johnson, 2006.) Between
1976 and 1996, for persons murdered by intimates, the number of male victims
was an average of 5% per year, and the number of female victims went down to an
average 1% (U.S. Department of Justice, 1998).
Furthermore, some
researchers focused on an array of issues bothering on prevalence of domestic
violence; against women; on gender based violence; and as well as relationship
between violence and death of women (Ahiie, 2009; Yusuf, Arulogun,
Oladepo & Olowokeere 2011; Oladepo, 2011; Adebayo & Kolawole, 2013). Indermaur (2001) who found
that married women aged 19 to 40 years had experienced more of domestic
violence from their partner than older married women. Uskun, Nayir and Kisioglu
(2012) found that level of education has an inverse relationship with domestic
violence. McQuigg (2011) found victims
of domestic violence are mostly women and children. Kwamboka (2002) found
significant difference in the forms of domestic violence based on years of
marriage. He asserted that married adults in their early marriage experienced
several forms of domestic violence such as frightening, intimidating,
terrorize, manipulate, hurt, humiliate, blame, injure or wound someone in
Kenya.
However, to the best of the researcher’s
knowledge, none of the previous researchers had
worked on the predictors of domestic violence in Ilorin metropolis. Therefore,
this present researcher intends to fill the gap left by the previous researchers
to investigates the predictors of domestic violence as expressed by married
adults in Ilorin metropolis, Kwara state.
Research Questions
The under listed research questions were
raised to guide the conduct of this study:
1. What are the predictors
of domestic violence as expressed by married adults in Ilorin metropolis, Kwara state?
Research Hypotheses
The following null research hypotheses were
formulated and tested in the study:
1. There
is no significant difference in the predictors of domestic violence among
married adults in Ilorin metropolis based on gender.
2. There
is no significant difference in the predictors of domestic violence among
married adults in Ilorin metropolis based on age.
3. There
is no significant difference in the predictors of domestic violence among
married adults in Ilorin metropolis based on educational qualification.
4. There
is no significant difference in the predictors of domestic violence among
married adults in Ilorin metropolis based on religion affiliation.
5. There
is no significant difference in the predictors of domestic violence among
married adults in Ilorin metropolis based on years in marriage.
6. There
is no significant difference in the predictors of domestic violence among
married adults in Ilorin metropolis based on type of occupation.
Purpose of the Study
The
major purpose of this study is to investigate the predictors of domestic
violence as expressed by married adults in Ilorin metropolis, Kwara state.
Specifically, the study seek to find out if moderating variables of gender,
age, educational qualification, religion, years of marriage and type of occupation
will influence the expression of married adults in Ilorin metropolis on the
predictors of domestic violence.
Significance of the Study
The
finding of this study would be of immense benefit to married adults, would be
couples, marriage counsellors, psychologists and future researchers.
The
result of this study would assist married adults or parents and would be
couples to be aware of the predictors of domestic violence; and haven been
exposed to those predictors, it might guide them on how to build stable
marriage devoid of domestic violence. It might assist them in their preparation
for wholesome families and may also promote healthy and stable family
relationship that will be of profitable mode of marital behaviours that may be
quote essential
Marriage
counsellors could find the results of this study helpful. The findings could
groom the counsellors more in addition to the knowledge of marital counselling.
The findings of study could supply relevant data that might help marriage counsellors
in finding solution to the problems of domestic violence in Ilorin metropolis
and Nigerian society as a whole.
Lastly,
the study may serve as future reference, be a source of aspiration to new
researchers who may be interested in studying domestic violence and related
topics.
Operational
Definitions of Terms
For the purpose of clarity and understanding
terminologies used in
this study, the following terms are operationally defined as used in the study.
Domestic Violence: the act of inflicting or physical or
emotional injury by one spouse on another.
Married Adults: literate men and women who are
psychologically, socially, and mentally
matured and in marital relationship based on societal acceptance.
Predictor: An act or
incidence which predicts domestic violence among married adults.
Violence: The use of physical force or emotional abuse
to harm a spouse.
Scope of
the Study
This study is aimed at finding out
the predictors of domestic violence as expressed by married adults in Ilorin
metropolis, Kwara state. Kwara state has sixteen local government areas with
737,577 married adults, it will be difficult for this researcher to cover all
the married adults across the state due to lack of time and resources (both
human and material resources). Thus the study is going to be limited to
selected married adults in Ilorin metropolis. The study investigated the
influence of moderating variables of gender, age, educational qualification,
religion, years of marriage and nature of occupation on respondents’ view about
predictors of domestic violence. A total of 385 respondents formed a sample for
the study. An instrument entitled “Predictors of Domestic Violence
Questionnaire” (PDVQ) was used to gather data for the analysis. The data will
be analysed using percentage, mean and rank order for demographic data while t-test
and Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) statistic tool was be used for the null hypotheses.
Click “DOWNLOAD NOW” below to get the complete Projects
FOR QUICK HELP CHAT WITH US NOW!
+(234) 0814 780 1594
Login To Comment